The Atlantic salmon is a large fish with a small head and eyes and a blunt nose. Its mouth reaches back below the eye and is filled with short, conical teeth. Its caudal fins are slightly forked and has an adipose fin on its back, present in all species of trout. It is distinguished from its Pacific cousins by its anal fin, which has a maximum of 12 rays. It also has a narrow ‘wrist’ on the tail, which differentiates it from sea trout.
The Atlantic salmon has large scales and during feeding periods, the flanks are silver and back dark green-blue and black spots are flecked above the lateral line. During spawning, adults become darker in colour, with their flanks becoming red or bronze with reddish spots. Females can appear to be almost black. During spawning, males develop a hooked jaw (called a ‘kype’) used for fighting other males for fertilization rights.
Atlantic salmon alternate between freshwater and ocean habitats. They are born in coastal rivers in northeastern North America, Iceland and Europe where they spend the first 2-3 years of their life. Here, they prefer to live near gravel and boulders where the water is clean and well oxygenated or near natural grassy banks and overhanging deciduous trees. Insects (which young salmon feed on) will occasionally fall into the rivers and estuaries and the trees provide shade and some cover from predators. While in these rivers, salmon will undergo a physiological change called ‘smoltification’ which prepares them for life in the ocean. Their bodies become more streamlined and develop a silver colouring. It is also thought that they imprint on the rivers they will return to later in life to spawn.
Atlantic salmon will then migrate through the North Atlantic Ocean and share feeding grounds off the coast of Greenland to feed, as the ocean has a much better supply of nutritious food than their river birthing grounds. They will stay in the ocean for a further 2-3 years before return to their rivers to spawn and reproduce.
Map of distribution of the Atlantic salmon
Diet
Soon after the yolk sac is absorbed, young salmon begin to hunt and feed off very small organisms and occasionally, salmon eggs. The most common include caddisflies, blackflies, mayflies, stoneflies and plankton and will hunt in both the substrate and the current.
After the smoltification process, the salmon grow larger, move downstream into the ocean and feed on much larger prey, including Arctic squid, sand eels, amphipods, Arctic shrimp and sometimes herring.
Reproduction
After spending 2-3 years in the ocean, Atlantic salmon will migrate as much as thousands of miles back to their natal coastal rivers to spawn during the summer and autumn. They will swim against river currents and have to leap over several waterfalls, only the fittest will reach the spawning grounds and reproduce. They stop feeding as they enter freshwater and rely on their fat reserves for energy. Their stomach disintegrates internally to make room for eggs and sperm.
Males will arrive first and stake out territories. During this time, the mouths of the males change and become more hooked and pincer-like, called a ‘kype’. This displays the male’s dominant characteristics to females and is used in fighting other males for females. Territories with shallow, gravel beds are preferred with the right amount of river flow. Enough to oxygenate the eggs but not so strong that they wash eggs away.
When females arrive, they initiate spawning by digging a shallow nest in the gravel, known as a ‘redd’ and is created by the female turning into one side and fanning her tail. The female then signals to a male that she is ready to lay by touching her anal fin to the gravel. The male joins the female, and side by side, they release their gametes (eggs and sperm) above the redd.
Eggs and milt
The female released 2,000-10,000 small, orange eggs about the size of a small pea. The male releases a while milt, which contains millions of sperm over the eggs, and fertilization occurs externally. The pair then moves upstream and repeat the process until they are out of their energy or gametes. The males may spawn with several females, however, females will typically only spawn with a single male. The entire reproduction process takes a day or two once the pair reach the spawning grounds.
Fertilized eggs hatch within 3-4 months and emerge in the form on an alevin, where they still have the yolk sac attached to their bodies near the throat, which lasts about a month before the young begin to hunt for themselves. After 5-10 weeks they are known as a ‘fry’ and after several months, when they have developed their ‘tiger-like’ markings, they are called a ‘parr’.
Salmon alevin
Adaptations
The lateral line of a fish, runs along the length of its body and acts as a ‘sixth sense’. It allows the fish to detect which way is up in water. Atlantic salmon also use this line to detect the flow of the current around them, aiding them in their migration to their natal rivers.
Atlantic salmon have four sets of gills with specialized cells that allow them to migrate between salt and fresh water, and are efficient in the dissolving of oxygen. When in saltwater, salt is taken from the water flowing over the gills and expelled via a gland. This process is called ‘osmoregulation’.
The sense of smell of the Atlantic salmon is approximately 1,000 times greater than that of a dog. It is thought this superior sense of smell is used to aid the fish with navigation during their migration. In an experiment carried out in Canada. A salmon was able to detect a single drop of a substance (prostaglandin-A) in the equivalent of eight Olympic sized swimming pools of water.
Threats
Atlantic salmon survival can be affected immensely by river pollution. They require clean and well oxygenated water in order to spawn and for smolts to grow. Pollution can be caused by chemicals, oil and rubbish as well as acid rain and agricultural run-off. Large numbers of cattle walking through the river can also disturb salmon by kicking up mud, causing eggs to become destroyed or by making it near impossible for females to create their redds. Erosion can also cause river banks to collapse into the water which can be caused by overgrazing and deforestation. Run-off can also cause an increase in nutrients which results in ‘algal blooms’. The increased vegetation eventually die off and cause an increase in bacteria, which uses up the valuable oxygen the salmon need. Dams and other water obstructions can also prevent salmon from migrating back to their spawning grounds, resulting in a decrease of young.
Atlantic salmon are also affected by alien species, most notably the American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) which were introduced to Scotland in the mid-1970’s for aquaculture. This crayfish burrows into riverbanks, which weakens them and makes them more likely to collapse. It also feeds on insects, fish eggs and fry (including salmon).
American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus)
Salmon can also be affected by disease such as the ulcerative dermal necrosis (UDN) which was caught by most salmon in Scotland in the 70’s and nearly wiped out the entire population. Parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris and Henneguya salminicola can attach to salmon using their hooked feet and can affect the gills, fins and skin and occurs in over 20 Norwegian rivers. Climate change can also affect salmon survival by increasing water temperature. Smolts struggle to survive in higher temperatures and can also affect growth rates and prey availability.
Salmon meat affected by Henneguya salminicola
Atlantic salmon are commonly farmed in many rivers throughout Norway and the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland. The high concentrations of fish can cause sea lice to multiply drastically which can effect wild fish as well as those in fish farms. Escapees from these farms can also interbreed with wild fish which reduces the fitness of future generations. These farms can also increase water pollution due to a build-up of uneaten food, feces and medication. This can also lead to a rapid spread of infection among all fish.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
There are several non-profit organizations which work to actively protect or provide funding for the protection and conservation of the Atlantic salmon. One of which is the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO), which soon after it was established, created a fishing free sanctuary by prohibiting fishing in most parts of the North Atlantic 12 nautical miles from the coast. They have also developed Precautionary Approach agreements in relation to:
“Management of fisheries,
Habitat protection and restoration,
Impacts of aquaculture, introductions and transfers of transgenics,
Stock rebuilding programs,
Use of socio economic factors in management decisions.”
The Atlantic Salmon Conservation Foundation also works to “promote enhances community partnerships of salmon and its habitat in Atlantic Canada and Quebec”. It operates as a source of funding for the conservation of the Atlantic salmon and its habitat and to improve public awareness, education and research of the animal and its conservation efforts.
Atlantic salmon can be actively supported by way of ‘supportive breeding’, which includes capturing wild individuals, breeding them in captivity and then release. Fish ladders can also be installed in order to aid the migration of the salmon around man-made obstacles. The salmon leap over each step in order move over the obstacle. Adding limestone to rivers can also neutralized acidity levels of the water. This process is known as ‘liming’. River banks can also be stabilized against erosion by reforesting the area (without conifers, as the needles are acidic and can cause the acidity level of the water to rise by dropping into the river).
Fish ladder
Fun Facts
Male: Cock
Female: Hen
Young: Alevin / fry / parr
Group: run / shoal / bind / draught
When Atlantic salmon return to their natal rivers, they lose all their teeth and grow new ones.
Atlantic salmon will swim up to 2,500 miles to reach their feeding grounds.
Atlantic salmon are one of only 87 species of fish to migrate between salt and freshwater.
Mature females can carry up to 22% of their body weight in eggs.
A female can lay up to 1,600 eggs per kilogram of her body weight.
Cub petting is a business which is carried out across the globe, including South Africa, Mexico and Florida. These can include bears, cheetahs, crocodiles and leopards, (however, for this report, we’ll be focusing on lions and tigers, as they are most commonly used). Paying customers will have the opportunity to hold, cuddle, feed and have their picture taken these animals. Well-meaning voluntourists can also go on package trips involving these animals (ranging in price from £800-1,000 approximately) where they will be able to interact with them while under the assumption that they are benefiting the conservation status of the species in the wild.
When giving in to the temptation of holding a cute and cuddly cub, people are often told that the exhibitors are from sanctuaries and that cubs enjoy the experience. It’s done to promote the species conservation in the wild and the cubs move onto good homes when they’re no longer cubs. These erase from the mind of the customers any feelings of doubt and / or guilt before handling the animals, however, in most cases, these statements are often false.
As the demand for this experience increases, more and more cubs are bred to meet it. Many captive lions and tigers are now in effect, being farmed, to produce enough cubs to keep up. The cubs are taken away from their mothers incredibly early which stimulates her to come into season again, ready to produce the next litter. While being passed around from stranger to stranger, the cubs are often drugged to keep them calm and are kept in conditions which impact negatively on their welfare when not on display. There is little to no market for adult lions and tigers other than hunting and many will meet their end in a ‘sport’ known as ‘canned hunting’. Others will be sold into the exotic pet trade or will be killed for their body parts, either to be sold as décor or souvenirs or to be used in traditional Asian medicines.
Cub Breeding
When agreeing to partake in a cub petting experience, people are often told by the handlers that the cubs are ‘rescued’ and are from ‘sanctuaries’ and that they must keep breeding and showing cubs in order to raise funds to run said ‘sanctuary’. This however, is false. True big cat rescues and sanctuaries do not breed lions or allow cubs to be exhibited around the country to ‘raise funds’. Cub petting experiences often operate facilities which comply with minimal standards of animal enclosure and welfare but fall far below the standards set by the Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries’ (GFAS) as humane. These ‘pseudo-sanctuaries’ pray on this misconception in order to continue to buy and sell wildlife and gain finances from the public.
Within these operations, cubs are taken from their mothers after only a few days and will separate them using seemingly cruel methods. In one example, workers will wait until the mother leaves the nesting area of her enclosure to feed or drink etc., and will then close the door between them. The mother can then do nothing but watch as they take her cubs. It has also been observed, in larger facilities that workers will drive towards a mother and her cubs in a large vehicle, playing loud horns or sirens to scare her off. They will then quickly retrieve the unattended cubs and drive off with them. In the wild, cubs will typically spend up to two years with the mother and after this premature separation, both the mother and cubs will spend days crying out for each other. The mother will then quickly go back into heat, ready to be bred from again, and the cubs will imprint on their human keepers.
Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries (GFAS)
The GFAS was founded in 2007 and is located in Washington D.C and was created to help the public to distinguish true sanctuaries from the fake and to set a standard of best practice and animal welfare for allsanctuaries across the globe. The GFAS defines a sanctuary and these must meet their standards in order to be accredited and states that there can be no commercial trade, invasive or intrusive research, unescorted public visitation or contact and no removal of wild animals for exhibition, education or research.
“The Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries mission is “Helping Sanctuaries Help Animals”. In carrying out this mission, GFAS:
Promotes and validates excellence in sanctuary management and humane and responsible care of animals through international accreditation, collaboration, mentoring;
Promotes the development of greater recognition and resources for sanctuaries;
Seeks to eliminate the causes of displaces animals.
In actual practice, GFAS carries out this mission through:
Providing worldwide standards,
Carrying out a global accreditation programme,
Convening,
Education,
Speaking up for sanctuaries,
Creating funding streams for responsible disbursement.”
Laws and Legislation
US Legislation
In the U.S, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) states that cubs under the age of 8 weeks (the age when they are considered to have an adequately developed immune system) are two young for public exhibition and those over the age of 12 weeks are too dangerous, which leaves only a 4 week gap where cubs can legally be handled by the public. This promotes rapid breeding of cubs and illegal overuse of animals (many operations have been found to be violating the 8-12 week policy), which puts the health and safety of humans and the cubs involved at risk for the sake of profit. It has been recorded, that at least 33 facilities in the US are advertising cub petting experiences regularly, which includes travelling mall exhibits and private menageries. To meet this advertised supply, these 33 facilities would have to produce a minimum of 200 cubs annually.
There is, however, very little enforcement of relevant legislation. During 2009, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) had only 97 animal care inspectors to cover over 4,300 facilities and the USDA has only 105 for almost 8,000 in 2011 (about one inspector for every 80 facilities). Facilities covered by these inspections include commercial breeders, zoos, auction houses, circuses, abattoirs and safaris. Enforcement is reduced even further as it is almost impossible to tell if a cub is within the legal age range within a single visit as there is great variance in body size among individuals. This lack of inspectors allows many violations to go unnoticed and unpunished and relying on them to ensure the quality of care of these animals is unrealistic.
UK Legislation
Animal Welfare Act 2006
The Animal Welfare Act contains general laws relating to the welfare of all animals on common land and makes it an offence to cause unnecessary suffering to such animals. It also contains a Duty of Care which insists that anyone responsible for an animal must take reasonable steps to make sure their needs are met. These needs include:
The need for a suitable environment,
The need for a suitable diet,
The need to exhibit normal behaviour patterns,
The need to be housed with, or apart from, other animals (where applicable),
The need to be protected from pain, injury, suffering and disease.
Penalties for not meeting these needs as a person responsible for an animal’s welfare include prison time and / or a fine of up to £20,000 ($30,383) as well as a ban from owning animals in the future.
Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976
This piece of legislation requires people to acquire a license in order to keep dangerous wild animals (any animal that poses a potential risk to the public). The terms of this license insist that the applicant makes the local authority aware of which species they intend to keep and how many of each species, as well as the location of the premises on which the animals will be normally held. This act also states that the animal(s) in question should only be kept by the person named on the license, the animal(s) shall normally be kept on the premises included on the license and the animal(s) shall not be moved from the premises.
The Dangerous Wild Animals Act does not apply to zoos, circuses, pet shops or any place which is a designated establishment within the meaning of the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. Penalties for breaking the terms of the license include seizure of the animal(s) which can then be held or destroyed without compensation, cancellation of the license and/or a fine of up to £5,000 ($7,595.75). All big cats and bears are included under this act.
The local authority will only grant a license if:
The applicant is deemed to be suitable to hold a license,
The animal(s) is kept in a suitable environment;
A secure enclosure,
Enclosure is of suitable construction, size, temperature, lighting, ventilation, drainage and cleanliness,
Provides adequate food, drinking water and bedding materials,
Is visited at suitable intervals,
Enclosure is large enough so that the animal(s) can take appropriate exercise,
A veterinary surgeon or practitioner authorized by the authority has inspected the premises and declared it suitable for the animal(s) to be living there.
License holders should:
Take appropriate steps for the protection of the animal(s) concerned in the event of a fire or other emergency,
Prevent and control the spread of infectious diseases.
These pieces of legislation make it very difficult for cub petting organizations to establish themselves in the UK. Anyone keeping lions, tigers and/or bears must acquire a dangerous wild animal’s license and holders are policed to ensure they are providing the best care for their animals. Early removal of cubs from their mothers and travel around the country to be held by members of the public would not be tolerated and animals will be quickly confiscated. What also makes it difficult for cub petting experiences is how often the animals would be on display to the public. If they are on show for more than seven days in a year, they are then seen as a zoological establishment and must acquire a zoo license in order to continue operating.
South Africa Legislation
South Africa have two pieces of legislation relating to the protection of animals and their welfare; Animals Protection Act 1962 and Performing Animals Protection Act 1935. There is also the Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1993 which governs the organisations and management of animal welfare organisations. The South African Veterinary Foundation suggests that these acts are not entirely effective due to lack of regulations and provision for the registration of animal workers.
Despite these acts, breeding big cats, cub petting and canned hunting are all entirely legal in South Africa. There are an estimated 160 lion breeding establishments in the country and 8,000 captive lions as opposed to only 4, 000 which are wild.
Cub Welfare
Perhaps unsurprisingly, the welfare of cubs used in cub petting experienced is often compromised in ways to extend their ‘petting time’ and to financially benefit the exhibitors.
Table 1: Typical development of tiger and lion cubs
Tiger Cub
Lion Cub
· Begins eating solid food at 13 weeks.
· Completely weaned at 17 weeks.
· Groom litter mates at 9 weeks.
· Self-grooming at 12 weeks.
· Social play at 5 weeks (increases with age).
· Able to run at 25-30 days.
· Can keep up with pride and weaning begins at 2-3 months.
· Are weaned but still dependent on mother (up to month 16 or later) at 6-10 months.
· Eruption of permanent teeth and begins to take part in hunts at 9-12 months.
During the 8-12 week legal window in America, cubs require long periods of sleep and begin to roam and wander in order to test their muscles and develop coordination. However, during cub petting experiences, they are constantly awakened and are yanked back when they wander off. When they are not on show, they are confined to cages for hours and are unable to meet these needs. Cubs often squirm and wriggle while they are being used in these exhibits, and to ‘calm’ them, exhibitors will do one of two things.
Blowing in the face of a cub is said to relax them, however, their wild mothers use this as a form of punishment and to discipline their cubs. The cubs freeze in hopes that the blowing stops, rather than because they are calm. Cub keepers will also hold a cub under its front legs and bounce it up and down, which they say ‘resets’ them and is how they are treated by their mothers. Both of these statements are false. There is no way an adult lion or tiger can physically hold a cub like this. This bouncing is unnatural and causes stress to the cubs, which can lead to illness. In fact, many cubs used in mall cub petting show have been observed suffering with severe diarrhea, which the keepers will keep wiping off the floor and from their sore behinds, causing the cubs to screech in pain. Some cubs will also have their teeth and claws removed as to reduce the risk of injuring members of the public.
Although the 8-12 week rule applies to much of the US, in Florida, it is legal to use a cub for cub petting displays only if it weighs less than 25lbs. Exhibitors will often exploit this piece of legislation, by underfeeding the cubs or feeding them pills to bring on diarrhea to keep them as light as possible for as long as possible. Drugs are also often fed to cubs as another tactic to keep them calm while they are mollycoddled by tourists. These breeches of welfare standard for the cubs can be so severe that in one example, an exhibitor had 23 cubs die in 2010.
Exhibitors will often tell members of the public that these cubs have been rescued from mothers who have rejected them or who have been killed by poachers. More often than not, these statements are again, false, however, if they do happen to be true, parading cubs around the country to be handled by strangers in this manner is not a sufficient substitute upbringing for them. Hand-reared cubs should be brought up in a rich environment and raising them in isolation (away from other animals) can result in severe behavioral inadequacies. Bush et al suggests that “where home environment rearing is not possible, the cub should be provided with a non-human companion” (such as a domestic dog). Kloss and Lang, 1976, also write that “many hand raised cubs develop hair loss at 6-8 weeks, possibly due to some diet deficiency”. It is almost common sense that being make to partake in cub petting experiences is not in the best interest of the cubs, but rather that of their keepers.
Zoonotic Diseases
In May, 2011, the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians (NASPHV) declared that the public should be stopped from making direct contact with tigers due to the risk of illness. Zoonotic diseases (those which can transfer between human and animal) from big cats include ringworm, salmonella and rabies. The NASPHV said that “ringworm in 23 persons and multiple animal species was traced to a microporum canis infection in a hand reared zoo tiger cub”. The Center for Disease Control states that three quarters of all emerging infectious threats arise from zoonotic diseases, which also accounts for five of the six diseases they regard as top threats to national security. Internal Medicine have also estimated that 50 million people globally have been infected with zoonotic diseases since 2000 and as many as 78,000 have died.
Zuri the white Bengal tiger, suffering with ringworm. www.noahs-ark.org
Benefits to Conservation
Exhibitors of cubs will often tell members of the public, that these cub petting experiences directly benefit conservation and that the cubs are released into the wild when they’re grown, which entices people to part with their money. This however, is also false. No lions or tigers have ever been released into the wild and conservationists have made it clear, that none ever will be. Partly, because they are too valuable to the keepers to part with (see section 6) and partly because the individuals are completely unsuited to a wild life and will most likely die within the first year. These people may also say that although their cubs will not be released, the money made from the exhibits will go towards conserving their wild counterparts. This is also a lie as not a single lion, tiger or conservation charity have benefited from any profit made by these experiences and no conservationist or charity could justify the immense suffering of some individuals to ‘save’ others.
Habituation
Habituation is a process by which an animal becomes gradually used to situations they would ordinarily avoid. A habituated animal cannot be returned to the wild, especially large carnivores, as they can cause conflict with local people. If an animal has been brought up being petting and fed by humans, when in the wild, it will seek out humans for food as it knows no other way of sustaining itself. This can frighten people and cause them to kill or severely injure the animal, seeing it as a threat. If strongly habituated to humans, animals cannot survive on their own, unless rehabilited to do so. Cub petting strongly habituates cubs to humans and unless they are going to be moved to a rehabilitation center after their use in the cub petting industry has come to an end (which is unlikely because it would cost about as much as the profit it would have generated to do so), they will not be able to be released into the wild.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitating an animal in order to make it suitable to a wild life takes time, money and resources. If habituated to humans, this connection needs to break. The animal needs to be taught what foods that it will find in its wild environment are safe and suitable to eat and how to get them. In regards to big cats and other large predators, hunting techniques can be taught using timers, pulley systems and eventually live prey (as seen in the bobcat rehabilitation video below), where the food is dispensed and pulled across the enclosure, enticing the animals to chase it, developing muscles and hunting capabilities. This happens hours after humans have left the enclosure, in order to weaken the animals association of humans with food.
Health
During the 8-12 week window in which cubs can legally be used for these experiences throughout much of America, lion and tiger cubs are both drinking milk and would only just be beginning the weaning process. However, as mentioned before, many are taken from their mothers prematurely, both to be able to breed from the female and to be able to profit from the cubs sooner. Being removed from their mothers too soon means the cubs aren’t receiving antibodies from their milk which results in a weakened immune system. Cubs also do not learn the valuable lessons of how to socialize with others of their kind or what to eat and how to get it, as they do not have the time to play and interact with their littermates. They are not taught how to behave as the species they are or how to survive in their wild environment. While ‘on tour’ as part of a cub petting experience, cubs do not have the opportunity to partake in as much exercise as they need in order to promote proper muscle development. This leads to underweight individuals who would not be physically able to hunt for themselves if they even thought to.
Growing out of the Petting Industry
Once cubs reach 12 weeks of age (3 months), they are legally no longer allowed to be used in cub petting experiences in the USA and become too dangerous to be in direct contact with members of the public. At this age, the breeders are left with an animal that they are losing money on (as carnivores are exceedingly expensive to keep). The longer they hold on to it, the more money they lose, so they try to reclaim some funds by selling it to hunting establishments overseas, zoos to be used in walking experiences or into the black market, where it is killed and its parts used in traditional Asian medicines.
Lion / Tiger Walks
This is usually the first stop for a male lion or tiger cub once they grow out of cub petting (as females are often taken back to breeders to produce the next generation of cubs) and works much in the same way. The animals are usually put on a leash and are strolled around by a paying tourist, much like a pet dog. Establishments charge around US$150 (Approx. GB£100) and promote themselves as being part of ‘conservation, research, rehabilitation and release’. Lion walks are common in many African countries, while places such as the infamous Tiger Temple in Thailand, offer leashed walks with tigers.
Traditional Asian Medicines
When these lions begin to grow older, they are moved into overcrowded enclosures to grow. Those who grow only small manes are killed (as few hunters pay to shoot a small maned lion) and their parts are sold to buyers in Asia to be used in traditional Asian medicines. Many tigers are killed to supply this demand as soon as they grow out of ‘walking’ and few are kept for canned hunting.
Tigers have been used for over 1,000 years in traditional Asian medicines, due to the belief that they possess great strength and supernatural powers. Many parts of the tiger are used including the bones, eyes, whiskers, teeth, dung, penis, brain, bile, nose leather, fat and claws and it is believed they are cure a wide range of ailments such as ulcers, malaria, cancer, stomach ache and rheumatism. They are often sold as raw ingredients or in the form of tiger wines, powder, balms and pills which are very popular throughout the Asian community despite the lack of scientific evidence that they work.
Since 2008 however, Asian traders began to show an interest in lion products as the decline in tiger populations became acute and getting hold of their parts became exceedingly difficult. Lion bones are in more recent years, being used as an alternative to tiger bones and they can sell for around $75 (£49.50) per lb or $5,000 (£3,300) for a whole skeleton (the skull alone can fetch $1,100 (£726)). Some hunters who partake in canned hunting do not wish to take most or any of the body home with them, which allows the breeders to sell the remains for a healthy profit. Many of the bones exported from Africa however, are illegal and have been obtained by poachers which is estimated to account for half of the total exports of lion bones.
Lion Bones
Canned Hunting
Canned hunting (in which lions are commonly used) refers to the hunting of captive animals and is completely legal in South Africa. Hunters pay to kill an animal trapped inside an enclosure with either a hand-gun, shotgun or crossbow and can cost £5,000-20,000 (US$7,572.60-30,290.40 / SAR109,059.42-436,237.68) per kill. This business is becoming larger and larger and in 2012, it generated approximately 807 million South African Rand (US$70 million / GB£46.2 million). Hunters are attracted to canned as opposed to wild hunting by the guarantee of success and the low price (£5,000 to shoot a captive lion in South Africa and £50,000 (US$75,697 / SAR1,090,594.20) to shoot a wild lion in Tanzania).
In 2008, the South African government declared that an animal has to have roamed free for two years before it could be hunted, which by definition, banned canned hunting (this restricted the profitability of breeders significantly). However, just three years later in 2011, lion breeders challenged this policy and South African courts and a high court judge ruled that such restrictions were ‘not rational’, and the policy was reversed. This resulted in the number of trophy hunted animals to soar. In 2001-06, 1,830 lion trophies were exported from South Africa and in 2006-11, this increased to 4,062, a 122% increase (the vast majority of which were captive bred).
Hunters and keepers of these establishments have defended their sport by proclaiming that it helps the conservation of wild lions and that ‘for every captive lion killed, a wild lion is saved’. This is based on the assumption that ‘every hunter who is prevented from shooting a tame lion will go out a shoot a wild one’. This claim have been proven false however, as wild populations of lions have declined by 80% in the last 20 years. A statistic which has proven that the rise of lion farms and canned hunting has not protected thm. In fact, some suggest that it is actually fueling this decline by putting a clear price tag on the head of every wild lion, and promoting illegal poaching.
Celebrity Influence
Celebrities hold a colossal level of influence over the public and serve as arbiters of morality and opinion. Many companies exploit this influence by featuring them in advertisements for their products. In the USA, one in four ads feature a celebrity, in Europe, celebrity endorsed adverts account for 16% of the total. In Asia, this figure increases to an astonishing 70%. According to the Global Consumer Trends Survey of 2013, 10% of consumers say celebrities are their main inspiration for purchasing a product.
Harry Styles
Twitter
26.2 million followers
Facebook
14,507,245 likes
Instagram
14.2 million followers
YouTube
18,021,235 subscribers
(to OneDirectionVEVO)
The sheer level of influence celebrities have over their fan base was made apparent earlier this year (2015) when One Direction star, Harry Styles, urged his fans to boycott SeaWorld. Following this, SeaWorld reported in August, an 84% drop in earnings during the second quarter of 2015 (they had only a 2% decrease during the same period only a year earlier in 2014). Other factors which may have contributed to this drop however, include the 2013 documentary, Blackfish and according to SeaWorld, “large amounts of rain in Texas and brand challenges in California.”
Many people with celebrity status however, do seemingly innocent things, more often than not, in full ignorance of the consequences of their actions both on their fans and the animals involved. Earlier this year, Beyoncé and husband, Jay Z posted a picture on social media of them bottle feeding a tiger cub with their daughter for their millions of followers to see.
Beyoncé
Jay Z
Twitter
14.1 million followers
371K followers
Facebook
63,767,893 likes
20,908,896 likes
Instagram
52.5 million followers
107K followers
YouTube
8,501,701 subscribers (BeyonceVEVO)
248,406 subscribers (JayZVEVO)
Other celebrities to have posed with tigers, lions and their cubs include:
Khloe Kardashian
Twitter
17.3 million followers
Facebook
46,856 likes
Instagram
36.7 million followers
YouTube
5,451 subscribers
Mike Tyson
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Celebrities should set a humane example, not an exploitative one, as their potential for influence is massive.”…”Tigers can kill, whether wild or captive, and every unwitting child who chooses to pose with a tiger as a result of seeing celebrities do so is at risk. Imagine if Beyoncé and Jay Z decided to expose tigers to the world by supporting their conservation in the wild instead.”
-Adam M, Roberts, CEO of Born Free USA
These people most likely are not aware of how partaking in these experiences compromises the welfare of the animals involved, as are a huge proportion of the general public. These celebrities are not doing this with the knowledge that the cubs will be moving into canned hunting establishments or sold on the black market to supply ingredients for traditional medicines, they are not at fault. However, the breeders of big cats and exhibitors of cubs know how to manipulate the public into parting with their cash and, just like any other industry, will use the status and influence of celebrities to endorse their ‘product’.
Many celebrities however, seem to be aware of their influence and use it to promote good animal welfare and to speak against cub petting and canned hunting. Just a few examples include:
Ian Somehalder created a foundation in his name (Ian Somehader Foundation) which educated the public about issued affecting animals, such as exotic pet ownership, pet overpopulation and the importance of pollinators. He also called out his ex and co-star, Nina Dobrev on Twitter after she posted pictures feeding tiger cubs.
Tippi Hedren owned a male lion named Neil, which lived in her house and slept on her daughter’s bed. She now, however, speaks out against owning big cats as pets and owns a big cat sanctuary. She is also working towards a ban against them being bred for pets.
Ricky Gervais frequently calls out trophy hunters on social media and calls for an end to trophy and canned hunting of big cats and other megafauna.
Conclusion
It is apparent that cub petting, canned hunting and lion/tiger walks benefits no-one but breeders and hunters. They are skilled at convincing members of the public that they benefit the conservation of wild animals, and that their cubs are orphans and have good homes to go to once their grown or are released into the wild, all of which are false statements. Apex predators are integral to the balance of ecosystems and play a huge role in natural selection. By eliminating weaker individuals from prey species herds, they reduce genetic problems and increase genetic fitness in future generations. Lions are currently classified as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN and tigers, ‘endangered’. These industries which claim to benefit the conservation of these species have yet to do so.
Authors Note:
This particular subject was very difficult to write. When writing these reports, I try to be as unbiased as possible and to present a balanced argument, however, in the month I spent researching this subject, I found absolutely no evidence to suggest that cub petting, canned hunting or lion and tiger walks benefit anyone but the breeders and keepers than run these industries. Personally, I think it would be in the best interest of the cubs and the wild populations of these species, for these practices to come to an end.
Thank you so much for taking the time to read this and I hope you found it enlightening and informative. You can help to bring cub petting and canned hunting to and end by refusing to partake in such experiences (no matter how tempting it may be) and to educate family and friends, maybe even share this report with them. If anyone has any further questions, feel free to get in touch with me.
Bush, M., Philips, L., Montali, R., Dierenfeld, E., Hakala, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Binczik, G. and Tilson, R (2015) Management and Conservation of Captive Tigers [Online] Available at: https://www.tigerlink.org/husbandry/husman6.htm [Accessed: 28 November 2015]
Campaign against Canned Hunting (2013) What happens to those little cubs used in cub petting experiences? [Online] Available at: http://www.cannedlion.org/cub-petting.html [Accessed: 11 November 2015]
Kloss, H.G.; Lang, E.M. HANDBOOK OF ZOO MEDICINE: DISEASES AND TREATMENT OF WILD ANIMALS IN ZOOS, GAME PARKS, CIRCUSES AND PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. Van Nostrand Rheinhold: New York, 1976.
Lindsey, P., Alexander, R., Balme, G., Midlane, N and Craig, J (2012) South African Journal of Wildlife Research. Possible Relationships Between the South-African Captive Bred Lion Hunting Industry and the Hunting and Conservation of Lions Elsewhere in Africa. 42(1): 11-22
Polyphagy: “The habit of feeding on many different kinds of food.”
Most large animals will feed on multiple foods. For example, a cheetah is a carnivore but will eat different meats such as rabbits, antelopes, warthogs and ostrich.
Monophagy: “Feeding on only one kinds of food.”
Some animals will only eat one specific kind of food, often known as ‘specialists’. An example of a specialist animal is the koala, which only eats eucalyptus leaves.
The suffixes of most of the following words are either ‘vore’ which is derived from the Latin word ‘vorare’ meaning ‘to devour’ or ‘phagy’, which is derived from the Greek word ‘φαγειν’ meaning ‘to eat’.
Carnivore
An animal that eats the meat from other animals.
Grey wolf (Canis lupus)
Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)
Common buzzard (Buteo buteo)
Araneophagy
Feeding on or eating spiders.
Blackbird (Turdus merula)
Cellar spider (Pholicidae)
Common toad (Bufo bufo)
Avivore
Feeding on or eating birds.
Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus)
Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx)
Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi)
Durophagy
The consumption of hard-shelled organisms (coral, invertebrates and bamboo)
Family:Eupleridae (carnivores native to Madagascar)
Genus:Cryptoprocta (fossa)
Species:Cryptoprocta ferox (fossa)
Apperance
Length: 610-800mm (tail: 610-800mm)
Weight: 7-12kg
The fossa is the largest land predator on the island of Madagascar. It has short and dense red to bark brown fur and has a cat-like head with a dog-like snout. Its tail it around the same length as its body and the fossa uses it for balance when in the trees. It has large, forward-facing eyes, small, rounded ears and has a number of feline features including curved, retractable claws and slightly webbed feet. The fossa has only slight sexual dimorphism with the females being slightly smaller than the males.
Like many of the living species found in Madagascar, the fossa is found nowhere else on earth. They prefer to inhabit the dense forested areas because of the ample food supply and also because there is enough space to establish a territory.
The diet of the fossa is strictly carnivorous with over half of its diet being lemurs, which it catches and consumes in the branches of trees. It will also eat however, birds, baby bush pigs, civet cats, fish, rats, eggs, snakes, frogs and insects. Occasionally, it will raid domestic farmland and steal chickens and small sheep and goats.
Behaviour
The fossa uses its large tail to manoeuvre through the trees of Madagascar quickly and can be active during the day or night. They tend to be solitary unless mating and prefer to live in dens or holes. Their anal glands secrete a very powerful and unpleasant odour which is used to establish territories. It lives at low population densities and requires undisturbed forests.
Reproduction
Mating occurs between September and December. A female will establish a breeding ground and can attract up to 8 males who will compete for her attention using vocalizations. The female will then chose a male to mate with.
Mating can last up to three hours. The reason it is such a lengthy process is because of the physical nature of the male’s penis, which has backwards facing spines along its length. The male will remain with the female for up to an hour after mating. After, the female will leave to be replaced by another.
A mother fossa will have a litter of up to six cubs in a concealed location such as an underground den or a rock crevice. Gestation can last up to 90 days with the young being born in December to January. The new-borns are born blind and toothless and weigh no more than 100g (3.5oz) and the fur is thin and grey-brown. After two weeks, the eyes open, they become more active and their fur darkens to a pearl grey. They take solid food at three months and leave the den at four and a half months and are weaned shortly after. The cubs are independent of their mother after a year and their permanent teeth show at 18-20 months. They reach physical maturity at two years and sexual maturity at three to four years.
The red to dark brown colouring of the fossas coat provides excellent camouflage when hunting lemurs through the tree tops.
Not only can the fossa climb trees quickly but they are also able to descend from then head first. This can be accomplished because they have very flexible ankles, which can twist almost completely around.
The fossa tail is about the same length as its body. This provides excellent balance when climbing through the tree tops. The fossa can keep balance on the thinnest of branches.
The fossa can produce a very powerful and unpleasant odour from its anal glands. This is used to establish territories and breeding grounds.
Threats
There are fewer than 2,500 individuals left on Madagascar and only 10-15% of their country remains wild, the majority of which has been lost in the last 50 years. Their biggest threat is habitat loss, usually for logging and for clearance for farmland. Also, as their home become increasingly smaller, they are forced into human settlements and occasionally steal chickens and small sheep. For this they are killed by farmers. They also have a possible threat from bush meat hunters.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Vulnerable
The fossa is listed on Appendix II of CITIES and is present in many protected areas throughout Madagascar such as Kirindy Forest and Ranomofana National Parks. They have been part of successful ex-situ captive breeding programmes since 1994 and there are around 70 individuals in zoos, mainly in Europe and North America.
Researchers from the Wildlife Conservation Society and from Duke University are studying the fossa and the competitive threat posed by the Indian civet and introduced wild cats. They are also working to raise awareness among the people of Madagascar of the role the fossa plays in pest control and are training local people to study and conserve this animal.
Giant Striped Mongooses have light brown, creamy coloured fur with 8 dark stripes running down their back. They have longer legs and larger feet than other members of the mongoose family. This species are not sexually dimorphic.
The giant striped mongoose lives in the spiny, desert region of South-western Madagascar, which is classified as subtropical or tropical dry. This area of Madagascar receives only 10-40cm of rainfall per year. The vegetation includes species of euphoria and pachypodium, which are spiny and thorny plants.
The giant striped mongoose is largely an insectivore, feasting on invertebrates, especially the giant hissing cockroach and scorpions. Also, due to their strong, crushing teeth and massive skill, scientists believe they may also hunt and eat rodents and lizards. This species forages and hunts individually and in pairs.
Behaviour
The giant striped mongoose is nocturnal and will hide in holes in limestone foundations during the day. They are very mobile and will not sleep in the same hole every day. They are very easy to tame and also very loyal to each other. If two mongooses are travelling together and one happens to get caught in a trap, the other will stay with it, even if humans approach.
The behavioural patterns of the giant striped mongoose are difficult to document because of the rough terrain it lives in. The limestone formations they sleep in also make it tough to track signals. New methods of tracking this animal are still being developed.
Reproduction
The giant striped mongoose lives and pairs and breeds all year round. They are monogamous and produce only one offspring per year. The gestation period of the female is thought to be between 72-105 days long, and the young weigh around 50g at birth.
This mongoose reaches physical maturity at 1-2 years and reaches sexual maturity at around 2 years. The young are cared for, groomed and suckled inside limestone burrows. Since they live in pairs, it is thought that the father also helps care for the young, and due to lack of research, it is unknown when the young break away from their mothers.
Threats
The giant striped mongoose has a limited range as it is and is rapidly decreasing due to threats of livestock grazing and clearance for maize cultivation. Also, the predation of non-native carnivores, such as dogs, is a big threat to these creatures.
Conservation
Conservation Status: Endangered
There is only one protected area in Madagascar that protects its native animals, called Tsimanampetstotsa National Park. Other things that are being done to protect and increase the number of giant striped mongooses include land/water management, site/area management and education and awareness.
Fun Facts
Male: Male
Female: Female
Young: Pup
Group: Mongaggle
The giant striped mongoose (also called Grandidier’s Mongoose) is named after Alfred Grandidier, the Malagasy mammologist.
The giant striped mongoose is extremely difficult to research due to the extreme environment that it lives in. No one even knows how long it lives for.
The greater flamingo is the tallest species of flamingo with legs longer than its body (measuring 80-125cm (31.5-49in)). The ankle is located about halfway up the leg and the knee is so close to the body it isn’t externally visible. The males are slightly larger than the females.
This bird has a characteristic long, curved neck and a black tipped bill with a distinctive downward bend. The plumage colour varies from pale pink to crimson and its colouration is derived from carotenoids pigments found in their diet of shrimp and other crustaceans. The newly hatched young are grey or white and take one-two years to obtain adult colouration.
The greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingo species. They can be found in Northwest India, Africa, the western Mediterranean and the Middle East. Large flocks of these birds can found in large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons lacking vegetation. They also inhabit mangrove swamps, tidal flats and sandy islands.
Greater flamingo are filter feeders and sucks water through its bills to filter out food such as small shrimp, seeds, algae, molluscs, insects and microscopic organisms. It first stirs up the mud by stomping its feet and then fully submerges its head upside down in the water to begin the filtering process (a flamingo can keep its head underwater for up to 20 seconds). They then pump their tongue up and down 5-6 times a second to push water back out of its bill, leaving any traces of food remaining. Greater flamingos will also swim out to deeper water and upend like a duck to reach food.
The flamingo’s food contains carotenoid pigments which are broken down in the liver and deposited into the feathers, skin and egg yolk. This is what gives the bird its pink plumage.
Behaviour
Greater flamingos are very social birds; colonies of tens of thousands of birds are common. They are also very vocal and have a number of different calls. When flying they are often mistaken for geese because of the honking noises they make and chicks can make calls while still inside its egg. Flamingos will often move from place to place during the night to areas of fresh food supplies.
These birds are active throughout day and night and daily activities include preening, feeding, resting and bathing. Greater flamingos are capable of swimming and bathe in shallow water, often submerging the whole body. These flamingos spend about 15-30% of the day preening their feathers, distributing oil from a gland near the base of the tail for waterproofing.
Reproduction
Greater flamingos will begin to breed at about six years of age and have no set breeding season, although rainfall and food supply seem to have an effect on when breeding and nest building occur in the year. Flamingos will carry out synchronous nesting so chicks will hatch at roughly the same time.
These flamingos are usually monogamous and form strong pair bonds but have been occasionally observed to mate with more than one partner. During courtship, individuals will perform ritualised stretching and preening and will call to each other frequently. Groups of males will also run with their bills pointed upwards and necks stretched out as part of their displays. The female will initiate copulation by leading the male away from the group and then invite him to mount by lowering her head and spreading her wings.
Flamingos will begin to build their nest mounds about six weeks before the egg is laid. These mounds are made from mud, stones, straw and feathers and can stand up to 30cm (12in) tall. A shallow well is made in the top for the egg to sit. These mounds provide protection from extreme heat and flooding.
One chalky white egg is laid and is incubated by both parents for 27-31 days. When the chicks first hatch, they are fed a white substance from the upper digestive track of the parent, known as ‘crop milk’. When they are old enough to walk, the chicks gather together in crèches which is watched over by a few adults.
Greater flamingos can cope with high levels of salinity and often the only fresh water they have access to come from boiling geysers. These flamingos are capable of drinking boiling water. They also have a gland located in their nostrils for expelling excess salt.
Greater flamingos will frequently stand on one leg and curl the other under their body as a method of thermoregulation.
When resting, flamingos will face the wind to stop cold air penetrating their feathers. They can often be seen swaying in the wind.
When flying, a flock can reach speeds of up to 50-60kph (31-37mph) and will travel 500-600km (311-373m) each night between habitats.
Threats
The greater flamingo is vulnerable to changes and disturbance to its limited number of breeding sites and breeding success is often reduced due to lowering water levels, which can increase salinity in an area and affect food levels. Thick soda deposits can also smother chicks.
Climate change can also have a serious impact on breeding sites of flamingos in the future due to rainfall and changing sea levels. Other threats to these birds include pollution, disease, lead poisoning and habitat loss from harbour and industrial development or drainage of wetlands for agricultural use.
In Egypt, large numbers of flamingos are shot or captures for sale in local markets and in Algeria, egg collection is still a big problem. The greater flamingo has few natural predators although eggs and chicks are preyed upon by other birds including the marabou stork.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
The greater flamingo breeds well in captivity and populations are currently maintained in various locations around the world. It has also been recommended that the conservation of this species depends on the protection of both its breeding and wintering sites.
In 1978, the Flamingo Specialist Group (FSG) was established to carry out research and conservation activities on this species. In France and Spain, colonies of flamingos are managed to increase suitable nesting sites and in Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates), populations are monitored by a satellite tracking programme and lead polluted sand is also removed from inhabited areas.
Fun Facts
Male: Cock
Female: Hen
Young: Chick
Group: Colony, Flamboyance, Flurry, Regiment, Stand
‘Flamingo’ is derived from the Latin word ‘flamenco’ which means ‘fire’ and refers to the colour of the birds feathers.
Genetically, flamingos are most closely related to grebes.
The greater flamingo is the largest of the six species of flamingo.
In the USA, there are more plastic lawn flamingos than real ones.
The Grey wolf resembles that of a sled dog, but with longer legs and narrower chest. It has thick fur and a thick bushy tail. The fur may be grey, red, brown, black or white and the tip of the tail may be tipped with black. It is the largest of all the wild dogs.
Relatives
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Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis)-ENDANGERED-
Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus)-NEAR THREATENED-
Red wolf (Canis rufus) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus)-EXTINCT-
Habitat & Distribution
The grey wolf prefers to live in open woodlands, tundra and forests but it can live anywhere where there is water and enough prey for the pack. The wolfs territory can range from about 50-5,000 miles and will defend it from invading wolves. The pack will use this area as a hunting ground.
The grey wolf can be found living throughout the Northern Hemisphere of the earth in countries such as North America, India, Russia, Canada and most of Europe, typically the colder countries of the world.
The diet of the grey wolf primarily consists of medium to large sized ungulates such as ibex, deer, elk, mountain sheep, wild goats and caribou. However, they are not fussy eaters and will also eat other animals such as foxes, mice, lizards, salmon, seals, waterfowl, eggs, frogs and toads. Also, in times of scarcity they will also eat carrion. Grey wolves have also been known to attack weak and injured wolves and eat dead members of their pack. The wolves will also supplement their diet with fruits and vegetables such as lily of the valley, bilberries, blueberries, nightshade, cowberry, apples and pears.
Grey wolves normally hunt in packs and have the ability to hunt strategically. Strategies that they may bring in to play include wearing the prey out by chasing it continuously, setting up an ambush, distracting they prey while the rest of the pack attack from behind, and bleeding the prey to death by biting into the soft areas of its body such as the neck and nose. Surplus killing may also occur when adult wolves are teaching the young to hunt.
Behaviour
Grey wolves live in packs with a complex social structure. They consist of one breeding pair (alpha male and female), their offspring and a few other subordinate wolves. This hierarchy helps the pack to function as a unit and carry out successful hunts.
Wolves will howl to communicate. They do this to locate lost members of the pack, to communicate when hunting and to advertise its presence and ownership of territory. They will also use scent marking to communicate with others and to mark their territory.
Reproduction
Grey wolves will mate any time between January and March. Once, pregnant the females will stay pregnant for around 63 days and the average litter size is 4-7 pups.
At birth, the pups tend to have darker fur than the adults and blue eyes. However, their eyes will change to a yellow-gold or orange colour when they reach about 8-16 weeks of age. Though it is extremely unusual, a wolf may retain its blue eyes throughout its lifetime.
In a pack, only the alpha male and female are allowed to reproduce and have puppies and the rest of the pack must help to take care of them. The alpha female will not tolerate other lactating female in her pack and will drive them away.
The grey wolf has woolly, insulated fur to keep them warm and have long, guard hairs to keep out moisture.
The grey wolf has excellent hearing which is twenty times sharper than a humans and their sense of smell is a hundred times keener.
These animals have great stamina and can cover a distance of more than 18 miles at a trot. They have a top speed of 40 miles per hour.
The grey wolf has very powerful jaws and has a crushing pressure of 500 pounds per square inch.
Threats
The biggest threat to grey wolf populations is loss of habitat. Wolves used to have the widest natural distribution of any mammal aside from humans. Now, their range has been reduced by a third, especially in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico and the United States.
Grey wolves are also poisoned and shot because of their taste for livestock. They are also trapped and shot for sport.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
Grey wolves are listed as endangered throughout the lower 48 states of America and in Minnesota, they are listed as threatened. They are protected by the Endangered Species Act (ESA). They are also protected by Yellowstone National Park where many wolves live. It is against the law to shot or kill any animal in Yellowstone.
In the UK they are protected by the UK Grey Wolf Conservation Trust.
Fun Facts
Male: Wolf
Female: Bitch
Young: Pup
Group: Pack
Grey wolf pups are born deaf and blind.
A wolfs howl can be heard by others 3-4 miles away.
The adults have a grey back and upper wings with a white head and under parts. The wingtips are black with white spots (known as ‘mirrors’). They have a yellow bill with a red spot underneath. They have bare yellow skin around the pale eyes and the legs are usually pink but can become yellowish. The males and females have identical plumage so are not incredibly sexually dimorphic, although the males tend to be slightly larger than the females.
The juvenile and 1st winter birds are mainly brown with dark streaks and have a dark bill and eyes. The 2nd winter birds lose some of their dark features and have a whiter head and under part with less dark streaking. The 3rd winter birds have plumage similar to adults but still retain some of their juvenile features such as brown feathers in the wings and dark markings on the bill.
Herring gulls tend to live and breed in coastal areas and is commonly seen perching on cliffs overlooking the sea to decrease the risk of predation by terrestrial mammals. Their habitat requirements seem to include shelter from the prevailing winds, a food source and protection from predators. These birds can also be found in seaside towns, nesting on the rooftops and eating the refuse.
These birds are commonly seen throughout the northern hemisphere as their range starches across countries such as Russia, Alaska and northern Canada. The herring gull can be found further south although they tend to breed in the northernmost areas of their range.
Herring gulls are omnivorous, opportunistic predators with their diet consisting of marine invertebrates, fish, small birds, eggs, carcasses and human refuse (the refuse will often make up as much as half of the birds diet). When foraging at sea, they will follow whales, fishing boats and groups of fish and squid to find food and will then form a scattered group when feeding. Herring gulls will often dive for food but struggle to go further than 1-2m deep due to their natural buoyancy. These birds will also eat nuts, fruits, grains and roots.
Herring gulls have proven themselves to be intelligent feeders as they have been observed dropping shellfish from great heights in an effort to break the shell open and will also use bread as bait to lure in and capture small fish. Also, herring gulls can often be seen drumming their feet against the ground in a comical manner for long periods of time. This causes vibrations to ripple through the soil which drives earthworms to the surface. These vibrations are thought to mimic those produced by digging moles which causes this escape behaviour in the worms.
Herring gulls are also fully capable of drinking seawater although they seem to prefer fresh water when presented with the choice. They have specialized glands above the eyes which removes excess salt from the body. This salt is then excreted as a solution through the nostrils.
Behaviour
Flocks of herring gulls have a very loose hierarchy which seems to be based on size and physical strength. Adult males are generally dominant over females and juveniles, although the females can become dominant when choosing nesting sites. Communication of this species is highly developed and very complex which includes the use of body language as well as vocal calls.
Unlike other flocking birds, herring gulls do not partake in social grooming and tend to keep physical contact between individuals to a minimum. They tend to maintain safe distances from each other and scrapping can occur if they get too close, although serious injuries usually do not occur.
Reproduction
During courtship, the female will intrude on the male’s territory and approach him in a submissive posture and making begging calls. If the male approves of her, he will respond with an upright posture and mewing calls. Then the two will dance, making head swaying movements for each other. After all this, the male will then regurgitate food and if accepted by the female, the two will copulate.
2-4 eggs are laid in a clutch although the average is three. They are laid in nests on the ground or on cliff edges which are defended fiercely by both parents. The eggs themselves are olive coloured adorned with dark blotches and are incubated for 28-30 days.
When the chicks emerge, their natural instincts tell them to peck the red spot on the adults beak to indicate hunger, which will cause the mother or father to regurgitate food. The young can fly after 35-40 days and fledge at 6 weeks. The parents will continue to feed the chicks up to 12 weeks to 6 months of age.
The herring gull has striking white plumage. This is to signal to others where food is found on the open ocean. This enables an individual to see exactly where food is and also aids the survival of large numbers of these birds.
The herring gull has large webbed feet which allows it to manoeuvre effectively while sitting on the sea surface.
The herring gulls have natural buoyancy which stops them from sinking into the sea. However, because of this, herring gulls can’t dive very deep, only up to 1-2m.
A herring gull chick is led by instinct to peck the red spot on an adults beak when it is hungry. This encouraged the adult to regurgitate food, which aids in the survival of the chicks.
Threats
These birds are threatened by coastal oil pollution and oil spills which can poison individuals and render many incapable of flight. Herring gulls are also susceptible to avian influenza (bird flu) and are hunted in Denmark. Breeding colonies of these gulls are predated upon by great black-backed gulls, harriers, corvids, herons, racoons and foxes.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
The herring gull is protected under the Conservation of Wildlife (Jersey) Law 2000 which makes it illegal to intentionally injure or kill any gull or to take, damage or destroy an active nest or its contents. Jersey also requires anybody to have an official licence to cull gulls.
In Britain, they are protected by many conservation groups including EC Birds Directive, Birds of Conservation Concern 3, Birds of Conservation Concern in Ireland 2 and it is also listed as a UK BAP species.
Fun Facts
Male: Cock
Female: Hen
Young: Chick
Group: Flock, Colony
The herring gull is named so because of an original belief that herrings were its favourite food.
The long, territorial call of the herring gull is also known as the laughing call.
The lionfish is clad in a series of zebra-like stripes, the colour of which vary among the different types of lionfish. It has up to 18 long, needle-like pectoral fins which it uses to sting and poison its prey.
Lionfish tend to live in coral reefs in shallow waters and hover near caves or crevices. They live in the warm waters of the Indo-Pacific oceanic region, ranging from Western Australia and Malaysia to the French Polynesia and the Pitcairn Islands. They can also be found in places such as South Japan, South Korea and the southern part of coastal Australia. Also, due to recent introduction, they can be found in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, Azores, the Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean Sea and the Red Sea.
They can also be found in the waters surrounding Florida. This is widely believed to be because an aquarium was hit by Hurricane Andrew. DNA from captured lionfish from the area have proven that they nearly all originated from the same six or seven fish.
The diet of a lionfish consists mainly of fish and shrimp and it relies on its lightning-fast reflexes and camouflage to help capture it. When hunting, the lionfish will use its large fins to corner its prey and then uses its quick reflexes to swallow it whole. It hunts mainly from late afternoon till dawn. It only uses its poisonous spines for protection not to capture prey. The poison of a lionfish is painful to humans but not lethal.
Behaviour
Lionfish are not aggressive towards humans and will keep their distance when given the opportunity to do so. Their poisonous spines are used only for protection instead of hunting. It will face an attacker in an upside down position which exposes its poisonous spines.
When hunting for prey it will corner it using its large fins, then swallow it whole using its lightning-fast reflexes.
Reproduction
When courting, a male will form a group of other lionfish of about 3-8, including a number of females. The lead male of this group will become extremely aggressive and chase off intruders while showing off its poisonous spines. When ready for mating the male becomes darker in colour and its stripes are much less visible. The female will become much paler and many areas of the body will become a silvery white. A female lionfish can lay from 4,000 to 30,000 eggs at one time.
The colourful markings and the long fins on a lionfish help it to blend into its coral background.
The lionfish can deliver a very powerful venom from its fins that can cause nausea and breathing difficulties in humans, however, it is rarely fatal.
The lionfish has a swim bladder which helps it to maintain its buoyancy whilst in the water.
The lionfish is a ‘wait-and-strike’ hunter. It hides, camouflaged, among coral and waits for a fish to swim past, then lunges out and eats it. The lionfish is a nocturnal hunter, eating only at night.
Threats
The only real threat to the population of the lionfish is the fact that they are slow breeders. It doesn’t have any real enemies in the wild although grouper and other fish have been found with lionfish remains in their stomachs.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
Lionfish are not listed as being threatened or endangered, as they can currently be found in most warm water areas of the world. Therefore no conservation is needed for this animal.
Fun Facts
Male: Male
Female: Female
Young: Fry
Group: Shoal, School
A lionfish can have up to 18 pectoral fins,
The lionfish is also known as a turkey fish, a dragon fish and a scorpion fish,
Height: Male – 105-135cm (41-53in) Female – 100-120cm (39-47in)
Weight: Male – 190kg (418lbs) Female – 120kg (26lbs)
The red deer is Britain’s largest land mammal. It has a reddish-brown summer coat and the males have thick, noticeable manes. The males start to grow antlers at the beginning of spring and are shed at the end of winter. New antlers have a soft covering (known as velvet) to protect them while they are still growing. Antler growth is driven by testosterone. When levels of this hormone drop in the autumn, the velvet is shed and the antlers stop growing. On the lead up to autumn, the antlers begin to calcify and the stag’s testosterone levels increase in preparation for the oncoming rut.
During the autumn, the deer grow their thick winter coat to provide insulation against the cold. The winter coat is greyish brown with a yellow rump patch. This thick coat sheds as summer begins.
Relatives
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Fallow deer (Dama dama) -LEAST CONCERN-
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)-LEAST CONCERN-
Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis)-NEAR THREATENED-
Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)-LEAST CONCERN-
Habitat & Distribution
The red deer occurs mainly in and around woodland and forest areas although it has also adapted to life on open moors and hills. They can occur throughout Asia, North Africa and Europe. In the UK, populations of this deer exist in Scotland, the Lake District and the south west of England (mainly in Exmoor).
The red deer also occurs as an alien species in New Zealand and Australia. They were introduced onto the island of New Zealand from Scotland by hunters. Between 1851 and 1914, there were 200 releases of these animals. They were originally a protected species so the herds expanded out of control. In 1930, a bounty was put on the red deer by a Deer Menace Conference. There are now freely hunted throughout New Zealand and Australia.
UK map of distribution of the red deer
Diet
Red deer are primarily grazers and can eat large quantities of heather, grass and other ground-hugging plants. They will also eat the fresher shoots of bushes and trees if ground food is scarce. Red deer can cause a great deal of damage to large areas, affecting the survival of other plant and animals species. Deer will eat pine seedlings, preventing the growth of new trees. Entire pine forests can disappear when the old trees die.
Behaviour
Red deer tend to live in large, single sex herds, the size of which can depend on habitat type / quality, deer density, disturbance, time of year and weather. Individual stags will leave their herds and move into hind areas as the rut approaches.
Stag groups tend to have a linear hierarchy while females are more matriarchal, meaning they are led by a dominant female. Stags can roam up to 40km throughout the year around their range, although moorland deer will stay on high ground during the summer to avoid flies and midges. The hinds may wander several kilometres to and from their lying areas to feeding places daily. Deer movement is affected by the time of day, the season and weather.
Reproduction
The Rut
The rut occurs from August into early winter. During this time, individual males will move into hind areas and compete for the right to breed. They will challenge opponents by belling and walking parallel, this allows them to size each other up, assess antlers and body size. If neither stag backs down, a clash of antlers will occur which can lead to serious injury and sometimes death.
Dominant stags can have as many as 20 hinds to protect from rival males. Only mature stags can successfully defend a harem and breeding success for red deer peaks at about eight years of age. Stags can lose up to 20% of their body weight during the rut, defending his females from rival males.
Stags will roar throughout the rut to keep his harem of females together. The females tend to be more attracted to stags who can roar the loudest and the most often.
Breeding
Stags will usually require several mating attempts before making a successful one. Also, like many other animals species, the red deer can exhibit homosexual behaviour (such as dolphins, penguins and swans).
The gestation periods of a red deer hind is 240-262 days and will produce one or two offspring. Each new-born fawn will weigh around 15kg (33lbs). The fawns will join the heard after two weeks and are fully weaned after two months. Like other deer species, the young are born spotted and will lose their markings by the end of the summer. The offspring will remain with their mother for nearly a year. The young females will tend to stay put, while the stags will leave to join bachelor herds.
The stags have large antlers which are used to show off their size to other males when competing for females. They are also used to engage in battle with equally matched stags.
When the antlers of the male first begin to grow they are covered in a fine layer of velvet. This protects the antlers while they are still growing and is shed as the rutting season occurs.
The adult males are a rusty brown (giving them their name) which provides camouflage in the woodland areas they live in. The young’s spots are also a camouflage adaptation.
Red deer have very acute senses of sight and hearing. Their eyes are located on either side of its head giving it a wide field of view. It also has manoeuvrable ears. Combined, its sight and hearing make it very difficult for predators to sneak up on a deer.
Threats
The red deer’s natural predators include bears, lynx and wolves (however, these are now extinct in Britain and so red deer thrive). Eagles and foxes will also occasionally prey and very young fawns. Hybridisation with sika deer can also cause a decline in pure red deer genetics. Red deer can also contract liver worms from alien species imported into Europe from North America.
In Mongolia, the red deer are hunted for their velvet, genital organs, foetuses and female tails which are all used in traditional medicine and sold for high prices. This alone has caused a 92% population decline in the last 18 years. Here, red deer are also threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, human disturbance from mining and infrastructure development and trophy hunters.
In China, large numbers of red deer are poached for their antlers, tendons, unborn fawns, male reproductive organs and tails which are then used in traditional Chinese medicines.
Conservation
IUCN Status: Least Concern
The red deer are protected under appendix II of the Bern Convention and appendix IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. They also occur in many protected areas outside of its natural range where it has been introduced.
Subspecies of the red deer are also protected by CITES. Cervus elaphus hanglu is protected under appendix I, cervus elaphus bactrianus under appendix II and Cervus elaphus barbarous under appendix III.
In Britain, the lack of natural predators and led for a huge increase in the population of red deer, so much so that they decimate acres of land making it unsuitable for other animal and plant species to survive. The red deer is actively culled in Britain due to its sheer numbers and to protect the environment.
Fun Facts
Male: Stag, Hart, Buck
Female: Hind, Doe
Young: Fawn
Group: Herd, Mob
The red deer is the largest, non-domesticated mammal in the UK.
The stags antlers grow at a rate of 2.5cm (1 inch) a day.
A stag can produce 10-15kg of velvet every year, which is then collected and sold for holistic medicines.
The Atlantic Salmon Conservation Foundation also works to “promote enhances community partnerships of salmon and its habitat in Atlantic Canada and Quebec”. It operates as a source of funding for the conservation of the Atlantic salmon and its habitat and to improve public awareness, education and research of the animal and its conservation efforts.
Nature Table 