Animal Diet Glossary

• Polyphagy: “The habit of feeding on many different kinds of food.”

Most large animals will feed on multiple foods. For example, a cheetah is a carnivore but will eat different meats such as rabbits, antelopes, warthogs and ostrich.

• Monophagy: “Feeding on only one kinds of food.”

Some animals will only eat one specific kind of food, often known as ‘specialists’. An example of a specialist animal is the koala, which only eats eucalyptus leaves.

The suffixes of most of the following words are either ‘vore’ which is derived from the Latin word ‘vorare’ meaning ‘to devour’ or ‘phagy’, which is derived from the Greek word ‘φαγειν’ meaning ‘to eat’.

Carnivore	An animal that eats the meat from other animals.	Grey wolf (Canis lupus) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) Common buzzard (Buteo buteo)
Araneophagy	Feeding on or eating spiders.	Blackbird (Turdus merula) Cellar spider (Pholicidae) Common toad (Bufo bufo)
Avivore	Feeding on or eating birds.	Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi)
Durophagy	The consumption of hard-shelled organisms (coral, invertebrates and bamboo)	Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Bullhead shark (Heterodontus) Crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)
Haematophagy	Feeding on blood	Vampire bat (Desmodontinae) Mosquito (female only) (Culicidae) Lamprey (Petromyzontiformes)
Insectivore	Feeding on insects	Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) Praying mantis (Mantodea) Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis)
Myrmecophagy	Feeding on ants and/or termites	Pangolin (Pholidota) Echidna (Tachyglossidae) Ant mimic jumping spider (Myrmarachne)
Invertivore	Feeding on invertebrates	Common frog (Rana temporaria) European headgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) Armadillo (Dasypodidae)
Ceratophagy	Feeding on the hair of animals	Common clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) Dermestid beetle larvae (Dermestidae)
Lepiodophagy	Feeding on fish scales	Bucktooth tetra (Exodon paradoxus) Elongate glassy perchlet (Chanda nama) Target fish (Terapon jarbua)
Molluscivore	Feeding on molluscs	Oystercatcher (Haematopus) Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) Cone snail (Conidae)
Mucophagy	Feeding on mucus	Sea lice (Caligidae) Vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis)
Ophiophagy	Feeding on snakes	Secretarybird (Sagittarius serpentarius) Mongoose (Herpestidae) Common kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula)
Oophagy	Feeding on eggs	Shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) Crow (Corvus) Hedgehog (Erinaceinae)
Piscivore	Feeding on fish	Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus)
Spongivore	Feeding on sponges	Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) Emperor angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) Sea slugs (Nudibranch)
Teuthophagore	Feeding on cephalopods	Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) Blue shark (Prionace glauca) Pyjama shark (Poroderma africanum)
Vermivore	Feeding on worms	American robin (Turdus migratorius) Long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus) Kiwi (Apteryx)
Herbivore	Feeding on plants	Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Red deer (Cervus elaphus) White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)
Exudativore / Gumivore	Feeding on gum, tree sap, resin	Black-tufted marmoset (Callithrix penicilata) Forked-marked lemur (Phaner) Leadbeaters possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri)
Folivore	Feeding on leaves	Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) Two-toed sloth (Choloepus) Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus)
Florivore	Feeding on flowers	European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulata) Fallow deer (Dama dama)
Frugivore	Feeding on fruits	Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) Orangutan (Pongo) Gray-bellied night monkey (Aotus lemurinus)
Graminovore	Feeding on grasses	Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
Garnivore	Feeding on seeds	Tree sparrow (Passer montanus) Western scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) Grey squirrel (Sciurus caeolinensis)
Nectarivore	Feeding on nectar	Australian painted lady (Vanessa kershawi) Honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus) Grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)
Polynivore	Feeding on pollen	Bees (Anthophila) Ladybird (Coccinellidae) Hoverfly (Syrphidae)
Xylophagy	Feeding on wood	Termite (Isoptera) Bark beetle (Scolytinae) Naval shipworm (Teredo navalis)
Omnivore	Feeding on animals and plants	Coati (Nasua / Nasuella) Brown bear (Ursus arctos) Darwin’s rhea (Rhea pennata)
Fungivore	Feeding on fungus	Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis) Land slugs (Philomycidae)
Bacterivore	Feeding on bacteria	Vorticella campanula Paramecium
Planktivore	Feeding on plankton	Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus)
Coprophagy	Feeding on feaces	Oriental latrine fly (Chrysomya megacephala) European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber)
Detritivore	Feeding on decomposing material	Earthworm (Megadrilacea) Woodlouse (Oniscidea) Fiddler crab (Uca)
Geophagy	Feeding on inorganic earth, soil, clay	Red and green macaw (Ara chloropterus) Bats (Chiroptera) Chimpanzee (Pan)
Osteophagy	Feeding on bones	Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) Brown bear (Ursus arctos) Giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis)
Scavenger	Feeding on carrion	Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) Yellowjacket (Vespula / Dolichovespula) Red-bellied piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri)
Cannibalism	Feeding on members of the same species	Mormon cricket (Anabrus simplex) Praying mantis (Mantodea) Belding’s ground squirrel (Urocitellus beldingi)

Galapagos Giant Tortoise (Geochelone nigra)

• Name: Galapagos giant tortoise
• Latin: Geochelone nigra
• Classification: Reptile
• Origin: Galapagos Islands
• Lifespan: 100+ years

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
• Class: Reptilia (Reptiles)
• Order: Testudinidae (Tortoises)
• Family: Testudinidae (Terrestrial tortoises with high domed carapace and elephantine feet)
• Genus: Chelonoidis (Found in S.America and the Galapagos Islands)
• Species: Geochelone nigra (Galapagos giant tortoise)

Appearance

• Height: 4ft (1.2m)
• Weight: 475lbs (215kg)

The Galapagos giant tortoise is the largest chelonian in the world and has around 12 subspecies, dotted along the length of the Galapagos Islands. There are variations among size and shape however, two main morphological forms exist – those with a domed carapace and those known as ‘saddle-backed’.

The domed tortoises are usually larger in size and do not have the upward thrust at the front of the carapace. They tend to live on larger and higher islands where forage is abundant and easily available.

The ‘saddle-backed’ tortoises evolved on arid islands and in response to the lack of available food during periods of drought. The front of the carapace angles upward which allows the tortoise to extend the head higher to reach vegetation.

Saddle-back carapace

Domed carapace

Relatives

Listed below are the known subspecies of the Galapagos giant tortoise.

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• Abingdon Island Tortoise (saddle-backed) (C.n.abingdoni) -EXTINCT-
• Volcan Wolf Tortoise (saddle-backed and domed) (C.n.becki) -VULNERABLE-
• Chatham Island Tortoise (saddle-backed and domed) (C.n.chathamensis) -VULNERABLE-
• James Island Tortoise (domed) (C.n.darwini) -ENDANGERED-
• Duncan Island Tortoise (saddle-backed) (C.n.duncanensis) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Sierra Negra Tortoise (domed) (C.n.guentheri) -ENDANGERED-
• Hood Island Tortoise (saddle-backed) (C.n.hoodensis) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Volcan Darwin Tortoise (domed) (C.n.microphyes) -VULNERABLE-
• Florena Island / Charles Island Tortoise (domed) (C.n.nigra) -EXTINCT-
• Indefatigable Island Tortoise (domed) (C.n.porteri) -ENDANGERED-
• Volcan Alcedo Tortoise (domed) (C.n.vandenburghi) -VULNERABLE-
• Iguana Cover Tortoise (domed) (C.n.vicina) -ENDANGERED-

Habitat & Distribution

The Galapagos giant tortoise is endemic to the Galapagos Islands in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and the environment and climate of which varies from island to island. Generally, saddle-backed tortoises are found on hot and dry islands with sparse vegetation, while domed tortoises live on wetter and cooler islands, with plenty of vegetation at ground level.

Diet

Galapagos giant tortoises are herbivorous and graze on grasses, leaves and cactus, as well as poison apple, guava, water fern and bromeliad. They have an extremely slow metabolism and can survive up to a year when deprived of both food and water by breaking down body fat to produce water as a by-product.

A thirsty tortoise can drink large amounts of water in a single sitting and store it in their bladders and ‘root of the neck’ (the pericardium). On arid island, individuals lick morning dew from boulders.

Juvenile tortoises eat on average 16.7% of their own body weight in dry matter a day and have the digestive efficiency equal to that of hind-gut fermenting herbivorous mammals, such as horses and rhinos.

Behaviour

Galapagos giant tortoises are cold blooded and will spend warm mornings basking in the sun and will spend a large part of the remainder of the day, grazing in small groups. Win the evening, when the temperature cools, they will sleep partially submerged in mud or water to keep warm and during the rainy season, they will wallow in shallow pools. This tortoise is regular in its sleeping, feeding and nesting habits and will sleep for approximately 16 hours at a time. They will travel the same path to feeding sites so regularly that paths have been cut and built into the landscape by them.

This tortoise is slow moving and moves on average 0.3 km/h. When determined to reach somewhere, such as a nesting or feeding site, they can cover around eight miles in 2-3 days.

The Galapagos giant tortoise has also formed symbiotic relationships with some other residents of the islands. For example, Galapagos finches will remove ticks and other parasites from the tortoise’s skin. This keeps the tortoise healthy while providing a meal for the finch. Galapagos hawks have also been seen using the tortoise has a watch post. This allows the hawk a moving point to scout for prey from and give protection to the tortoise.

Galapagos hawk perching on Galapagos giant tortoise

Reproduction

Mating can occur at any time of year although it does have seasonal peaks (between January and August). Males become territorial during the mating period and rivals will size each other up by standing tall and reaching out their necks, the tallest male being dominant and thus achieving the right to mate. In mixed populations of domed and saddle-backed tortoises, the latter have an advantage over the former. Non-dominate males have been observed attempting to mate with other males and even boulders.

Males attract females by bellowing and bobbing their heads. The Male will ram the female and nip at her legs until she draws them in. Mating can last for several hours and the male will bellow occasionally throughout. The tail, which houses the penis, is then brought to the cloaca and copulation begins. The male has a concave dip to the base of his shell, which is used to lock into place with the top of the female.

After mating, the female will travel to a nesting site, which can be several kilometers away. This site is dry, sandy and often situated near the coast. The digging of the nest is done blindly with the hind legs and the process is spread out over several days, which results in a 30cm deep hole. The female then lays a clutch of 2-16 hard shelled eggs (about the size of tennis balls) and plugs the nest with a mixture of soil, leaves and urine. The female will then leave the eggs to incubate.

The young emerge from the nest after 120-140 days and each weighs approximately 80g and measures only 6cm. The temperature of the nest can affect the male to female ratio of the clutch. Low temperatures produce more males and high temperatures produce more females. Once hatched, the young must dig themselves out of the nest which can take up to a month. Sex of the young can be determined at around 15 years of age and sexual maturity is reached at around 20-25 years old. Individuals will grow slowly and will reach their adult size at around 40 years old.

Young hood island tortoise

Adaptations

1. It is believed that the Galapagos giant tortoise evolved into its large size after its ancestors arrived on the islands during a time of no predators and no competition for resources, in a process known as ‘gigantism’. This large size allows the animal to house large fat and water reserves and tolerate extreme weather.
2. The saddle-backed shell has evolved in individuals that reside on the more arid islands of the Galapagos, the shape of which allows the tortoise to reach food situated on high branches. This shape however, leaves a large gap of vulnerable skin above the head once drawn in. This suggests that the tortoise suffered little to no predation during its evolution.
3. The domed shell is seen on individuals living on more humid islands where there is no need to reach as abundant vegetation is found at ground level. Domed tortoises tend to be larger in size and the shell shape allows for more security when the head and limbs are drawn in. This shape suggests that there may have been significant levels of predation during its evolution.
4. Galapagos giant tortoises generally live for up to and over 100 years, a feat of which a slow metabolism is necessary. The tortoise uses little energy in its daily routine and its metabolism is not required to process energy at a consistently high rate, allowing in the long lifespan.

Threats

Throughout the 1600’s, these tortoises were often captured and stored on whaling ships as a live source of food, as they did not have to eat regularly, so sailors did not have to spend food keeping them alive. This continued throughout the 19^th century as a total of over 15,000 individuals were recorded on the logs of 105 whaling ships between the years of 1811 and 1844.

Poaching of the Galapagos giant tortoise also occurs today but at a much lower level. Juvenile tortoises are primarily under threat from introduced species, such as feral dogs, cats and rats. Goats and cattle also compete with adults for resources. Some subspecies of the Galapagos giant tortoise are now extinct, including the Abingdon Island tortoise, of which the last individual ‘Lonesome George’ passed away in 2012.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Vulnerable

The Galapagos giant tortoise is listed under Appendix 1 of CITES, which only allows trade of the animal and / or its products under exceptional circumstances, and has full protection within the Galapagos National Park which was established by Ecuador in 1959. A collaboration between the Charles Darwin Foundation and the Galapagos National Park Service have been running a programme since the 1970’s, in which staff raise hatchlings from eggs until they are able to survive predation from alien species. This project has increase the population of the critically endangered Hood Island tortoise from just 13 in the 70’s to over 1,000 in the wild.

The Galapagos Conservancy are currently carrying out a project called the Giant Tortoise Restoration Initiative and state that within the next 10 years they will:

• “Restore tortoise populations, including those considered ‘extinct in the wild’, through a combination of in-situ management, breeding and rearing tortoises where appropriate, and repopulation of an island where tortoises are extinct through the use of an analog (closely-related species).
• Evaluate habitat conditions and restore where necessary.
• Improve education / outreach in service of giant tortoise conservation.”

Fun Facts

• Male: Male tortoise
• Female: Female tortoise
• Young: Hatchling
• Group: Bale, Dole, Creep

• Charles Darwin and Steve Irwin cared for the same tortoise, a female named Harriet.
• ‘Testidunal’ means ‘pertaining to or resembling a tortoise or tortoise shell’.
• Roman soldiers formed rows and held shields in front or above them to shelter the unit, known as the testudo formation, which is the Latin word for tortoise.

References

Animal Corner (2003) Galapagos Giant Tortoise [Online] Available at: https://animalcorner.co.uk/animals/galapagos-giant-tortoise/ [Accessed: 3 October 2015]

Arkive (2003) Galapagos Giant Tortoise (Geochelone nigra) [Online] Available at: http://www.arkive.org/galapagos-giant-tortoise/chelonoidis-nigra/ [Accessed: 8 September 2015]

BBC Nature (2014) Galapagos Giant Tortoise [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Gal%C3%A1pagos_tortoise#intro [Accessed: 8 September 2015]

Discover Galapagos (2015) The Endangered Galapagos Giant Tortoise [Online] Available at: https://www.discovergalapagos.com/tortoise.html [Accessed: 21 October 2015]

Fernando, C (2000) Animal Diversity Web [Online] Available at: http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelonoidis_nigra/#behavior [Accessed: 21 October 2015]

Galapagos Conservancy (2015) Giant Tortoises [Online] Available at: http://www.galapagos.org/about_galapagos/tortoises/ [Accessed: 3 October 2015]

Galapagos Conservancy (2015) Ecosystem Restoration: Giant Tortoise Restoration Initiative [Online] Available at: http://www.galapagos.org/conservation/tortoise-restoration/ [Accessed: 21 October 2015]

Galapagos Tortoise (2015) The Galapagos Tortoise [Online] Available at: https://edangalapagostortoise.wikispaces.com/Gal%C3%A1pagos+Tortoise [Accessed: 21 October 2015]

IUCN (2015) Chelonoidis nigra [Online] Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/9011/0 [Accessed: 21 October 2015]

National Geographic (2015) Galapagos Tortoise (Geochelone nigra) [Online] Available at: http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/galapagos-tortoise/ [Accessed: 8 September 2015]

San Diego Zoo (2010) Galapagos Tortoise, Geochelone nigra [Online] Available at: http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/galapagos_tortoise/tortoise.htm [Accessed: 8 September 2015]

Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis)

• Name: Ethiopian wolf
• Latin: Canis simensis
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Ethiopia, Africa
• Lifespan: 8-10 years
• AKA: Red fox, red jackal, simien fox

Taxonomy

Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)
Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
Class: Mammalia (Mammals)
Order: Carnivora (Carnivores)
Family: Canidae (Dogs)
Genus: Canis (Wolves, Dogs and Jackals)
Species: Canis Simensis (Ethiopian Wolf)

Apperance

Length: Average of 3.3ft
Weight: 24-42lbs

The Ethiopian wolf is very fox-like in appearance with its long legs and muzzle more pointed that its European cousins. It has a reddish coat with white underside and a black tip to its tail. The colour of its fur often gets darker with age.

Relatives

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• Grey wolf (Canis lupus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Red wolf (Canis rufus) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) -NEAR THREATENED-
• Himalayan wolf (Canis himalayaensis) -CRTICALLY ENDANGERED-

Habitat & Distribution

Packs of Ethiopian wolves tend to live in isolated pockets of alpine grassland and Heathland where there are plenty of rodents to feast on. They live at high altitudes of 3,000 meters above ground level in Ethiopia, Africa.

The rainfall at these high altitudes varies between 1-2m/year and have one pronounced dry seasons from December to February/March.

Map of distribution of the Ethiopian wolf

Diet

Ethiopian wolves are carnivores and their diet mainly consists of the rodents that are abundant in their homes. They will hunt and eat hares, giant mole rats and common grass rats. They have also been known to feed on eggs, goslings and young ungulates and will occasionally scavenge on carcasses.

They have strong social bonds but spend most of their day hunting alone. They hunt by sneaking up of their prey silently and pouncing when close enough.

Behaviour

Ethiopian wolves form strong social bonds with others in their pack but spend the majority of each day hunting individually for rodents. They are territorial candids that form territorial packs. The packs contain roughly 12 adults with a skewed mating ratio with several males for each female.

They congregate for social greetings and border patrols at dawn, noon and evenings and rest together at night. They use scent to mark their territories via urine posts, scratching and faeces. Vocalizations are also common in advertising and maintaining territories.

Aggressive interactions with neighbouring packs are common. These are always highly vocal and always end with the smaller pack fleeing from the larger.

Reproduction

Mating between Ethiopian wolves occurs between August and November. This includes a short courtship which involves the male accompanying the female wherever she goes. Females are receptive to all males including those outside the pack. Up to 70% of matings involve male from outside the pack.

The females give birth once a year between October and December. The pups are born with their eyes close, no teeth and a dark coat, the latter of which becomes lighter once they leave the den. This occurs about 3 weeks after birth. The pups are kept in a den dug by the female and are regularly shifted between dens to ensure their safety.

It is the responsibility of all members of the pack to help guard the den, chase away potential predators and bring hunted food to the pups. Subordinate females may assist the dominant female in suckling her pups. At least half of the extra nursing females show signs of pregnancy and may have lost or deserted their own offspring before joining the dominant females den.

Ethiopian wolf cubs

Adaptations

1. The Ethiopian wolf has a narrow, pointed muzzle, ideal for fitting into rat holes to catch their prey.
2. The Ethiopian wolf has small, widely spaced teeth which helps it to hold on to small, wriggling animals.
3. The Ethiopian wolf tends to hunt alone which matches the habits of its prey. A large pack is not required for taking down rodents and the wolf does not have to share his kill with others.
4. The dark orange colouring of the Ethiopian wolf’s fur provides excellent camouflage for it, meaning it can sneak up on its prey undetected.

Threats

Ethiopian wolves are one of the most endangered species of canine with their worldwide population being less that 500 separated into only seven isolated populations. They live in packs in altitudes as high as 10,500 feet.

Their threats include destruction of habitat by human populations to make way for farmland, roads and areas for livestock grazing. This loss of habitat forces them closer to humans, which is the cause of another of their threats. Ethiopian wolves can catch disease from domestic dogs, such as rabies and sometimes canine distemper.

Another big killer of these wolves is the hunting and poisoning of them by human farmers. It is widely believed that they hunt and eat the farmer’s livestock. However, this belief is in fact false. Ethiopian wolves feed primarily on rodents, and hunt solitary. A singly wolf would not be able to take down an animal such as a cow or even a pig on its own.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Endangered

There is a huge organisation designed solely to protect the Ethiopian wolf called the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP). It was founded in 1995 by Dr. Claudio Sillero. The strategies designed for the conservation of this wolf also protects the fragile afroalpine ecosystem of Ethiopia, Africa.

The EWCP protected the Ethiopian wolf by monitoring their numbers and where they live. It also vaccinates domestic dogs to reduce the spread of disease, provides a comprehensive education programme for local school children and employs local residents which raises the standards of living of the people of Ethiopia and in turn raises motivation to protect the wolf.

Fun Facts

Male: Brute
Female: Bitch
Young: Pup
Group: Pack

-Is an animal of many names including Abyssinian Fox, Red Fox, Red Jackal, Simien Fox and Simien Jackal.
-They are more closely related to wolves and coyotes than to the foxes they so closely resemble.
-They live in packs which involve about 3-13 individuals.
-One of the most endangered animals on the planet with less than 500 individuals.

Coyote (Canis latrans)

• Name: Coyote
• Latin: Canis latrans
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: North America
• Lifespan: 10-15 years
• AKA: American jackal, prairie wolf

Taxonomy

Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)
Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
Class: Mammalia (Mammals)
Order: Carnivora (Carnivores)
Family: Canidae (Dogs)
Genus: Canis (Wolves, dogs and jackals)
Species: Canis Latrans (Coyote)

Apperance

Length: 30-34inches Tail: 12-16inches
Height: 23-26inches
Weight: 15-45lbs

The Coyote is grey-brown to yellow-grey in colour and have white throats and underbellies. They have reddish-brown feet, fore legs, heads and muzzles and their drooping, bush tails are tipped with black.

Their ears are large and pointed and their muzzles are long and slender. While running they carry their tails below the horizontal line of their backs, a trait that distinguishes them from dogs and wolves.

Relatives

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• Grey wolf (Canis lupus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) -NEAR THREATENED-
• Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) -LEAST CONCERN-

Habitat & Distribution

The coyote’s habitat can be anywhere. They can be found in forests, plains and even in deserts. As humans move into their homes they are forced to leave and set up residence elsewhere. However, they are extremely adaptable and can easily live anywhere.

The coyote can be found living in the middle of Alaska down towards Mexico. They also live in Canada and part of the United States of America.

Map of distribution of the coyote

Diet

Coyotes are opportunistic and can and will eat almost anything they come across. Their broad diet can include small mammals such as chipmunks, rabbits and squirrels, as well as birds, snakes, lizards, frogs and toads. They will also hunt and eat small dogs and cats and even larger domestic animals such as sheep and goats.

Coyotes will hunt day or night, alone or in packs. When hunting in packs they can take down large prey such as adult deer and elk. They have also been known to wander in to urban towns and rummage through rubbish bins for scraps.

Probably their most intriguing feeding behaviour is that where it teams up with American badgers to hunt for food. The coyote will use its excellent sense of smell to sniff out small rodents hiding underground; the badger will then use its powerful claws to dig them out. The two will then share their winnings.

Behaviour

Coyotes have been observed travelling in large groups but primarily hunt in pairs. A typical pack will consist of about 6 closely related adults and their young. Their social behaviour seems to be closer to dingo’s than of wolves, this is because they have an early expression to aggression and they reach full growth in one year, where wolves take two years to be fully grown.

They car capable of digging their own burrows but will sometimes take the abandoned home of groundhogs or American badgers. Their territorial range is about 19 kilometres in diameter around their den and travel occurs along fixed trails. They also seem to be better than dogs at observational learning.

Reproduction

Reproduction happens between late January and late March, when the female is in heat. She will stay in heat for 2-5 days. Once a female chooses a partner, the couple may remain monogamous for a number of years.

The gestation period lasts 60-63 days and the litter size ranges from 1-19 pups (the average is 6). The pups however, have a high mortality rate, with 50-70% not reaching adulthood.

The pups are approximately 250g at birth and are initially blind and limp eared. Their eyes open and their ears become erect after about 10 days. They emerge from their den 21-28 days after birth and are fully weaned after 35 days. Both parents will feed weaned pups with regurgitated food. Male pups will leave the den at 6-9 months, but females will stay with the pack for life.

Coyotes are full grown at 9-12 months and sexual maturity is reached at 12 months. Unlike wolves, mothering coyotes will tolerate other lactating females in the pack.

Young coyote cubs vocalising

Adaptations

1. The coyote can adjust its hunting style to suit the prey. If it is hunting small animals it will stalk and pounce, and if it is after something bigger, such as a deer, it will hunt in a pack.
2. The scent of coyote urine is extremely strong and can scare away predators from its territory.
3. The coyote has very thick coat over the most vulnerable parts of its body, such as the stomach and throat. This protects them from injury.
4. The coyote has a very good sense of smell and uses this to track down its prey.

Threats

Coyotes have few predators, but the few they have include the mountain lion and the wolf. The pups are also preyed upon by large birds of prey (vulture) and also wolves. They are also shot by humans, mainly because they prove themselves to be a nuisance by going through rubbish bins and killing livestock. They are also shot for sport.

Another threat to coyote populations is their high mortality rate. 50-70% of pups will not reach adulthood.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Least Concern

There is no real need for conservation efforts for the coyote as their numbers are already high, and are kept high due to their amazing ability to adapt.

Humans also make sure their populations don’t dwindle because of their love for hunting and coyotes are a common target.

Fun Facts

Male: Yote
Female: Bitch
Young: Pup
Group: Pack, Band, Rout

Coyotes will follow circling birds, knowing they will lead them to dead meat.
In North American stories, Coyotes are clever and tricky.
They are North American fasted mammal, and can run at speeds of 65kpm.

Common Warthog (Phacochoerus africana)

• Name: Common warthog
• Latin: Phacochoerus africana
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Africa
• Lifespan: Up to 15 years

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia (mammals)
• Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates)
• Family: Suidae (pigs)
• Genus: Phacochoerus (warthogs)
• Species: Phacochoerus africana (common warthog)

Apperance

• Length: 9-1.5m (3.0-4.9ft)
• Weight: F: 45-75kg (99-165lbs) M: 60-150kg (130-330lbs)

The warthog is covered with sparse hair which is usually brown or black in colouration. They have a large flat head with two warts and two pairs of tusks (present in both sexes). The upper pair curve upwards and over the snout, while the lower pair are shorter and are sharpened by rubbing against the upper pair every time the mouth is opened and closed. The warthog has a black mane that runs down the spine to the middle of the back and their long tails end with a tuft of hair. The species is slightly sexually dimorphic with the males being heavier than the females.

Relatives

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• Pygmy hog (Porcula salvania) -CRTICIALLY ENDANGERED-
• Bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Red river hog (Potamocherus porcus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Sulawesi babirusa (Babyrousa celebensis) -VULNERABLE-

Habitat & Distribution

The common warthog is usually found in open and wooded savannas, grass steppes and semi-deserts throughout Africa. They prefer open areas and avoid rainforest and severe desert. The warthog has been found living at elevations of up to 3,000ft on Mt. Kilimanjaro and along the coastal regions of Africa. The common warthog lives outside forested areas in Africa, from Mauritania to Ethiopia and south to Namibia and eastern and south Africa.

Map of distribution of the common warthog

Diet

The common warthog is the only pig species that has adapted to grazing in savanna habitats. They are omnivorous and eat grasses, roots, berries, bark, fungi, eggs and carrion. Their diet is seasonally variable depending on the availability of food items. During the wet season, they primarily graze on short grasses and during the dry, they eat mostly bulbs, rhizomes and nutritious roots.

When feeding, the warthog will often bend their front legs backwards and move around on their wrists, on which there are calloused pads formed during early development of the foetus. They will use their snout and tusks to dig up rhizomes and bulbs, these foods provide water during periods of drought. The common warthog will also eat their own dun and that of rhinos, African buffalo, waterbuck and francolin. This animal is very hardy and are able to survive long periods without water, as much as several months in one season.

Behaviour

Common warthogs are not territorial but do keep to their home ranges. Females will live in groups with their young and other females. The males will leave the natal group at around two years of age but will stay within the home range. Sub-adult males form bachelor groups, but become solitary when adults.

These animals have two facial glands, tusks and sebaceous. Both sexes will begin to mark at six to seven months of age. The male of the species tend to mark more often than females and will mark sleeping and feeding areas and around waterholes. The tusks are used for courtship, antagonistic behaviours and to establish status.

Primarily diurnal, the warthog will often take refuge at night in their own or abandoned aardvark burrows. They cope with the high afternoon temperatures by wallowing in mud or water and cope with the low temperatures of the night by sheltering in burrows and huddling together.

As a species, the common warthog has poor eyesight but keen hearing and smell. When alarmed, they run with their tails held upright as an alarm for others. During friendly encounters, they will rub their preorbital glands against each other.

Reproduction

Mating between common warthogs is seasonally dependant. Females will become fertile four to five months after the rainy season and will give birth in the dry season. They have a polygynandrous mating system, meaning that both sexes will have multiple mates. Males do not defend territories but ritualized fighting can occur between males over oestrous females, however, injuries and fatalities are rare. Males will employ one of two mating strategies during the breeding season. There is the ‘staying tactic’, where a male will stay and defend females or resources valuable to them, or there is the ‘roaming tactic’ where the male will seek out oestrous sows and compete for them. Adult males are normally solitary but will join female groups for mating.

Prior to giving birth, females will become solitary and will give birth in a burrow. This in important for regulating the body temperature of the piglets as they cannot do this themselves for the first few days of life. The common warthog has the longest gestation of all pigs and can range from 170-175 days. Litter sizes range from one to seven piglets but on average will have a litter of three. The young will spend six to seven weeks in the burrow before venturing out with their mother and are weaned at 21 weeks of age. When threatened, the piglets will run head first into their burrow with the mother following after them. She will then turn and block the entrance with her tusks pointing forward, protecting her offspring from predators.

The males will leave their mother at two years of age but will not usually mate until they are about four and the females will stay with their mother until they are sexually mature (around 18-20 months) but will often return to the natal group throughout their lives.

Common warthog female with young piglets

Adaptations

1. Both sexes are armed with hard tusks on their faces. The males will use these as weapons when competing for females but are more commonly used by both males and females as tools for digging up roots and tubers from the earth.
2. The ‘warts’ for which these animals are named are actually pockets of fat located on the face. These are used for protection from rival males and predators.
3. Warthogs have developed hard calluses on their knees as a response to their feeding behaviour. They will kneel down and walk on their knees which makes digging for roots easier and they can also stand and run from predators quickly from this position.
4. The characteristic behaviour of common warthogs is to run with their tail pointing straight up. This is thought to help other individuals see where it is running and to follow.

Threats

The common warthog are currently not undergoing any significant decline however they are very susceptible to periods of prolonged drought and are also hunted extensively by trophy hunters. They are also persecuted by farmers for crop damage which has resulted in them becoming extirpated from some regions. The common warthog is also unfortunate enough to have an extensive list of predators, including lions, leopards, cheetahs, eagles and crocodiles among others.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Least Concern

The common warthog is present in many protected areas across its range and is part of many respected zoological collections across the globe. To prevent its population falling into a significant decline, the trade in ivory and bushmeat needs to be monitors and additional data can be collected on their distribution and population trends.

The subspecies of the common warthog, Phacochoerus africanus aeliani is threatened however, and requires additional research and some suggest captive breeding programmes to increase the population of this rare pig.

Fun Facts

• Male: Boar, Hog
• Female: Gilt, Sow
• Young: Piglet
• Group: Sounder

-These are adaptable animals and are able to change their foraging times / patterns in accordance to predator attendance.

-The common warthog will often utilise abandoned aardvark burrows rather than dig their own.

-The common warthog is gregarious and will live in groups of up to 40 individuals.

References

Arkive (2014) Common warthog (Phacochoerus africana) [Online] Available at: http://www.arkive.org/common-warthog/phacochoerus-africanus/image-G65244.html [Accessed: 16 July 2014]

BBC Nature (2014) Warthog [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Warthog [Accessed: 16 July 2014]

Creel, E (2005) Phacochoerus africanus – common warthog [Online] Available at: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Phacochoerus_africanus/#habitat [Accessed: 28 July 2014]

Denver Zoo (2008) Common Warthog – Phacochoerus africanus [pdf] Available at: http://www.denverzoo.org/downloads/dzoo_warthog.pdf [Accessed: 18 June 2015]

IUCN (2015) Phacochoerus africanus [Online] Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41768/0 [Accessed: 18 June 2015]

National Geographic (2014) Warthog – Phacochoerus africanus [Online] Available at: http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/warthog/ [Accessed: 28 July 2014]

San Diego Zoo (2015) Common Warthog (Phacochoerus africana) Fact Sheet 2015 [Online] Available at: http://ielc.libguides.com/content.php?pid=664508&sid=5503080 [Accessed: 18 June 2015]

WAZA (2014) Common warthog (Phacochoerus africana) [Online] Available at: http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/pigs-and-peccaris/phacochoerus-africanus [Accessed: 16 July 2014]

Wild Pig Specialist Group (2014) Wild Pigs of the World [Online] Available at: https://sites.google.com/site/wildpigspecialistgroup/iucnssc-wild-pig-specialist-group/wild-pigs-of-the-world [Accessed: 16 July 2014]

Wikipedia (2014) Warthog [Online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warthog [Accessed: 16 July 2014]

Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

• Name: Black rhinoceros
• Latin: Diceros bicornis
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Africa
• Lifespan: 35-50 years
• AKA: Hook-lipped rhinoceros

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia (Mammals)
• Order: Perissodactyla (Odd-toed Ungulates)
• Family: Rhinocerotidae (Rhinos)
• Genus: Diceros (Double Horned Rhinoceros)
• Species: Diceros bicornis (Black Rhinoceros)

Apperance

• Height: 132-180cm (52-71in)
• Weight: 800-1,400kg (1,800-3,100lbs)

The black rhino is a large, grey coloured animal with thick overlapping skin. They are smaller in size than the other African rhino, the white rhino and have less of a pronounced hump on the back of their necks. They are hairless apart from the ears, tip of the tail and eyelashes. They are distinguished from white rhinos by their pointed upper lip which is used for browsing from trees and bushes.

The black rhinoceros has two horns on its face made of keratin. The front horn is larger than the other and grow as much as three inches (eight centimetres) in a year and can grow up to five feet (1 ½ meters) long. The black rhino is slightly sexually dimorphic with the males being fractionally larger than the females.

Relatives

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• White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) -NEAR THREATENED-
• Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) -VULNERABLE-

Habitat & Distribution

Black rhino can be mainly found living in grassland – forest transition zones but can range from the desert in south-western Africa to montane forests in Kenya. They often restrict their territories to areas within 25km of water sources and can also be found in mud or water wallows to cool themselves.

Historically, they could be found throughout sub-Saharan Africa with the exception of the Congo basin. However, in the 1970s-80s, a poaching epidemic caused numbers to decrease by 40-90%. Since 1981, the black rhino has disappeared from many areas of Africa including Ethiopia, Malawi, Sudan and Botswana.

Today, 98% of the total population of black rhino is found in just four African countries; South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya. 40% of the total wild population live in South Africa.

Map of distribution of the black rhinoceros

Diet

Unlike their cousins, the white rhino, black rhinos are browsers and eat leaves, twigs and branches. Consumption of long grass is usually very low, making up only 30-40% of their overall diet. If water is available, they will drink everyday however; they also handle drought conditions very well and can go up to five days without drinking so long as their food contains enough moisture. If only dry forage is available, they can be found within a day’s travel to a water source. They are also not effected by the poisonous tannins that can increase during a time of drought.

The black rhinoceros feeds mostly during the early morning and the evening and use their horns to dig up roots and break branches for easier access to their food. Like zebra and horses, the black rhinoceros is a hind gut fermenter and digests the high amount of cellulose it eats using bacterial fermentation.

Behaviour

The black rhinoceros is a usually solitary animal, only coming together to breed however, they have recently been observed coming together at night at water holes to form bonds. They are not very territorial and home ranges depend on the availability of food and water. These animals are also known to be aggressive and due to their poor eyesight, will charge at anything it deems a threat (they have been observed to charge at tree trunks and termite mounds). They will also fight each other and have the highest rate of mortal combat of any mammal.

Black rhino have a varied vocabulary of vocalisations including growling; trumpeting (when fighting), long snorts (anger) and sneeze like calls (indicate danger). When started by a newcomer, they wrinkle their nose, prick their ears and release short snorts. A high pitched honk indicates fearfulness and a puffing snort is a common greeting between males and females.

Reproduction

Males will begin courtship by following the female for 1-2 weeks and will accompany her even as she sleeps. Before mating occurs, the male will walk with a stiff legged manner and brush his horn along the ground in front of the female. Many mounting attempts are usually made by the male before he is successful however; if the female isn’t ready she will make a series of attacks and charges at the male. When copulation is eventually successful, it can last between 20-40 minutes.

Breeding can occur at any time of the year and gestation will last for around 15 months. The female will carry and give birth to one offspring at a time which will weigh around 20-25kg at birth. The young are weaned after 18 months but will remain dependant on their mother for up to four years. Females will reach sexual maturity at 5-7 years and males, 7-8 years.

Young black rhinoceros

Adaptations

1. Black rhino have a pointed, prehensile lip which is used to pull branches and stems into its mouth for consumption.
2. Black rhinos have a behavioural adaptation of wallowing in mud. This behaviour provides a natural sun block and bug repellent.
3. Black rhino have two horns positions on the front of their face. These are used for fighting with rivals and breaking branches for easier access to food.
4. Despite their large size, black rhino are very graceful on their feet and can run at speeds of up to 30mph.

Threats

Poaching is the biggest threat to black rhinos. Rhino horn is in high demand on the black market and is used in Traditional Asian Medicines as a cure for fever, also the poaching wave in the 1970’s and 80’s was to meet the demand in Yemen for ceremonial daggers made from rhino horn. Unfortunately, while the demand for rhino horn exists, there will be people willing to exploit it.

Black rhino are also affected by hunting. In the early 20^th century, European settlers killed huge numbers of black rhino as vermin. They were also killed for food or sheer amusement and were common for five or six to be killed in a single day. As ever, habitat loss is also a threat.

In 1970, there were around 65,000 individual black rhinoceroses and by 1992 there remained only 2, 300. 96% of the total population of black rhino had disappeared during this time.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Critically Endangered

Several groups around the world are currently working towards the conservation of the black rhinoceros including the Zululand Wildlife Project, the AWF (African Wildlife Foundation), Save the Rhino and the International Rhino Foundation.

The WWF (World Wildlife Fund) is currently working to improve security monitoring o protect these rhinos against the threat of poaching, expanding existing protected areas and establishing new ones. The ZSL (Zoological Society of London) has been working with the KWS (Kenya Wildlife Service) since 1993 and provides training and technical support for many conservation activities including wildlife monitoring, anti-poaching patrols, metapopulation management and habitat assessments.

The black rhinoceros was listed under Appendix I of CITES in 1977 which prohibits all international trade of black rhino and their products. In addition, many of the remaining black rhino population are concentrated in intensive protection zones, conservancies and fenced sanctuaries, also monitoring of wild populations can provide information to guide management of rhinos and increase their population growth.

Fun Facts

• Male: Bull
• Female: Cow
• Young: Calf
• Group: Crash, Herd, Stubbornness

• Black rhino can develop a symbiotic relationship with oxpeckers (also known as tick birds) which sit on the animal and eat ticks and blood sores. They can even warn the rhino of danger.
• Although a herbivorous animal, black rhino have no natural predators (except man).
• Black rhino have very thick skin (up to 1.5cm thick) which can deter potential predators.

References

Black Rhino [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Black_Rhinoceros#intro [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros [Online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_rhinoceros [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros [Online] Available at: http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/rhinoceros/african_rhinos/black_rhinoceros/ [Accessed: 5 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros [Online] Available at: http://www.planetwildlife.com/information/species/black-rhinoceros?section=behaviour [Accessed: 5 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros [Online] Available at: http://www.oregonzoo.org/discover/animals/black-rhinoceros [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) [Online] Available at: http://animals.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/mammals/black-rhinoceros/ [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) [Online] Available at: http://www.arkive.org/black-rhinoceros/diceros-bicornis/ [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Black Rhino, Diceros bicornis [Online] Available at: http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/black_rhino/black_rhino.htm [Accessed: 5 November 2013]

Black Rhino Information [Online] Available at: http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/species_of_rhino/black_rhinos/black_rhino_factfile [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

Diceros bicornis [Online] Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/full/6557/0 [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Diceros bicornis – black rhinoceros [Online] Available at: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Diceros_bicornis/ [Accessed: 5 November 2013]

History and Threats of the Black Rhino [Online] Available at: http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/project/projects_in_depth/kwazulu/area/species/blackrhino_history.cfm [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Rhino Species – Rhinocerotidae [Online] Available at: http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/ [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

Rhino Conservation in East Africa [Online] Available at: http://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/africa/black-rhino/ [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Rhino Population Figures [Online] Available at: http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/rhino_population_figures [Accessed: 8 November 2013]

Species of Rhino [Online] Available at: http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/species_of_rhino [Accessed: 2 November 2013]

African Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer)

(http://www.arkive.org/african-fish-eagle/haliaeetus-vocifer/)

• Name: African fish eagle
• Latin: Haliaeetus vocifer
• Classification: Bird
• Origin: Africa
• Lifespan: 25-30 years
• AKA: Fish eagle, river eagle

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
• Class: Aves (Birds)
• Order: Falconiformes (Diurnal birds of prey)
• Family: Accipitridae (Hooked Billed)
• Genus: Haliaeetus (Sea eagles)
• Species: Haliaeetus vocifer (African fish eagle)

Appearance

• Height: 73cm (28.7 inches)
• Wingspan: 2m (6ft)
• Weight: 2-2.7kg (4.4-5.9lbs)

The adults have a very distinctive appearance and have a mostly brown body. They have large, powerful black wings and their head, breast and tail are snow white. Their featherless face is bright yellow. Their eyes are dark in colour and their hooked bill is yellow with a black tip. The feet have rough soles and sharp talons, used for catching and holding onto wriggling fish.

The juveniles are brown in colour and tend to have paler eyes than the adults. The females are generally smaller than the males.

Relatives

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• Tawny eagle (Aquila rapax) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Black hawk eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) -NEAR THREATENED-

Habitat & Distribution

These eagles can be found in large numbers around the lakes of South Africa where there is an abundant food supply. A pair may require less than a square mile of water to have enough food, however, if living near a river, they may need up to 15 miles.

The African fish eagle is widespread throughout southern Africa and is particularly common in and around the Rift Valley Lakes.

Map of distribution of the African fish eagle

Diet

Live fish make up about 90% of this birds diet. The rest is made up of other animals including water birds and their young, amphibians and carrion. The birds taken include ibis, storks, herons, spoonbills and the lesser flamingo.

These birds hunt by scanning the water from up in the trees. Once they spot a fish, they swoop down from their perch and snatch it from the water with their talons. The fish is then taken back to the perch to be eaten, or dragged to shore if it is too heavy to carry.

Behaviour

The African fish eagles tend to live in pairs close to streams and lakes. They are active and agile and can perform bold ariel displays, sometimes diving entirely into the water to catch their prey. They can remain on their perch for up to 85-90% of the day.

They are opportunistic feeders and will steal prey from other birds. They are also highly territorial all year round and can be extremely aggressive. They will either chase intruders away or attack from behind.

Reproduction

The breeding season of the African fish eagle is in the dry season, when the water level is low. They are monogamous, meaning they mate for life, and make 2 or more nests which they frequently re-use. They can measure 2m (6 feet) across and 1.2m (4 feet) deep.

The female lays 1-3 eggs which are white with red speckles. The incubation is mainly done by the female but the male will take over while the female hunts. The eggs take around 42-45 days to incubate. The first chick to hatch will often kill its younger siblings. This is known as siblicide and is a behaviour seen in many birds of prey.

Fledging takes 70-75 days and the young can feed itself after 8 weeks. They young birds will leave the nest and establish their own territories after 10 weeks of birth.

African fish eagle parent feeding chick.

Adaptations

1. The African fish eagle has a hooked beak which helps it to tear flesh from its prey and pull the strong muscles from its bones.
2. This bird of prey also has powerful talons which it uses to grip onto the slippery and wriggling fish it eats.
3. The African fish eagles are aggressive birds and will attack each other if they stray into others territory. It has adapted to have feathered legs in order to protect them from the sharp beak of its opponents.
4. Like all birds of prey, the African fish eagle has excellent eyesight. It uses this sense of sight to spot fish and other prey from its treetop perch.

Threats

Over fishing is a big threat to this bird as well at the increasing size of the local human populations. Large numbers of people move into the African fish eagle’s territory and fish their food supply dry. The birds then have no option than to leave to other areas to feed.

The biggest threat to these birds however, is pesticides. They enter the water system as run off or ground water from the crops on land and contaminate the water system. This kills huge numbers of fish as well as infecting the birds themselves. These pesticides cause reproductive failure in these animals and thin their eggs shells, making them more receptive to breakages.

Conservation

IUCN Status: Least Concern

This animal is listed as ‘Least Concern’ by the ICUN and there are 300,000 individuals. There are no conservation efforts for the African fish eagle.

Fun Facts

Male: Gigallos
Female: Eagless
Young: Eaglet
Group: Flock

-The young chicks often partake in siblicide. This is where the first chick to hatch will destroy the other eggs, in order to have its parent’s undivided attention.
-African fish eagles are monogamous, meaning they mate for life.

Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus)

(http://www.arkive.org/red-kangaroo/macropus-rufus/)

• Name: Red kangaroo
• Latin: Macropus rufus
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Australia
• Lifespan: Up to 23 years

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia (mammals)
• Order: Diprotodontia (‘two front’ ‘teeth’)
• Family: Macropodidae (native to Australia and New Guinea)
• Genus: Macropus (‘long’ ‘foot’)
• Species: Macropus rufus (red kangaroo)

Apperance

• Length: M: 1.3-1.6m (4.3-5.2ft) Tail: 1-1.2m (3.3-3.9ft) F: 85-105cm (33-41ft) Tail: 65-85cm (26-33ft)
• Weight: M: 55-85kg (120-190lbs) F: 18-40kg (40-88lbs)
• Height: 1.5m (4.9ft) on average

The red kangaroo is the world’s largest marsupial. They have long, pointed ears and a blunt muzzle, two forelimbs with short claws and two powerful hind limbs with large feet. The males have rusty-brown fur while the females have a blue hue (are often called ‘blue fliers’ by Australians). The females are smaller, lighter and faster than the powerful males. The red kangaroo is also equipped with a powerful tail which is used as a tripod when the animal is standing upright.

Relatives

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• Eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus giganteus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Common wallaroo (Macropus robustus robustus) -LEAST CONCERN-
• Black wallaroo (Macropus bernadua) -NEAR THREATENED-
• Antilopine wallaroo (Macropus antilopinus) -LEAST CONCERN-

Habitat & Distribution

The red kangaroo is most commonly found in open savannah woodland, using the scattered trees for shade and shelter. They are widely distributed throughout inland Australia and can withstand extreme heats, up to 44.4’C (111’F).

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Red_Kangaroo)

Diet

The red kangaroo is strictly herbivorous with their diet consisting of a variety of grasses, shrubs, flowering plants and foliage. They graze during the dawn and dusk hours of the day and do so in groups of around ten individuals (called a mob). They can also cope with low water levels as most of their water needs are satisfied by the moisture in the vegetation they eat.

The red kangaroo has a chambered stomach and chews the cud in the same way as a cow. Their digestive system even allows them to digest fibrous plant material unpalatable to goats. In times of drought, the red kangaroo compete little with livestock. They eat fewer kinds of plants than and require only 13% of the water required by sheep. Also, the adults have a resting metabolism that is only 70% of that of a sheep.

Behaviour

The red kangaroo will live in groups of 2-8 members, usually consisting of a female and her young, while larger groups will be led by a large, dominant male. Respectable communication within a group includes nose touching, sniffing, nuzzling a females pouch and touching the lips of another kangaroo. The males are not territorial and will only fight over females that have come into heat.

Boomers will engage in ritualized fighting, known as boxing, when females come into oestrous. While fighting, they will stand on their hind legs and attempt to push the other off balance. Fights can escalate and the males will begin to kick each other, using the tail to support their weight. These fights establish dominance relationships among males and are used to control access to oestrous females. Displaced males will usually live alone and avoid any close contact with others.

Reproduction

Breeding in red kangaroos is sensitive to environmental conditions but will happen all year round. Copulation can take around 35 minutes and the neonate will be born after 33 days. The baby is blind, hairless and only a few centimetres long (about the size of a jelly bean). It takes them about 3-5 minutes to climb through their mother’s fur to reach the pouch, once inside it will latch to one of the two teats and feed. The mother’s sexual cycle will begin almost immediately after the neonate is inside the pouch, becoming sexually receptive after another egg has descended to the uterus.

In around 190 days, the joey is large and developed enough to leave the pouch, but will often return for reassurance from its mother and safety. The joey will permanently leave the pouch after around 235 days but will continue to suckle until 12 months of age.

The females usually begin to breed at 2 ½ years but this can be delayed up until 5 years in times of drought. Females are also usually permanently pregnant however, possess the unusual ability to pause the birth of the neonate, known as embryonic diapause. This will occur in times of drought, low food sources or until the previous joey has left the pouch. Female red kangaroos will also partake in alloparental care, meaning she will adopt the joey of another female. This behaviour us also seen in wolves, elephants and fathead minnows.

(http://www.arkive.org/red-kangaroo/macropus-rufus/image-G64910.html)

Adaptations

• The hopping movement of the red kangaroo is a low energy method of moving quickly. The Achilles tendon in each hind leg acts as a spring and recycles energy with every bound.
• The red kangaroo will pant to cool down. They will also coat their chests and forearms with saliva. The blood returning to the heart cools as the moisture evaporates.
• The red kangaroo is equipped with large claws on their hind legs and can deliver a powerful kick which is capable of crushing bones, disembowelment and death.
• The fur of the red kangaroo can reflect heat from the sun and 30% of all incoming radiation is reflected. They will also adopt a crouching posture to expose as little of the body as possible to the sun’s rays.

Threats

Around 4 million red kangaroos are killed each year in Australia for their meat and skins which can be sold and used in the manufacture of consumer goods including shoes and pet food. They are also commonly shot, as they are seen as a pest by farmers and other land owners. Drought, bushfires and vehicle accidents are also common threats to this animal.

As with many species, habitat loss is an ever present threat to the red kangaroo with much of their habitat being destroyed to make way for residential areas, farms, mines and timber logging. Climate change can also alter the temperature and rainfall of their home and can cause a loss of grazing areas and water holes. They are also predated on by alien species (foxes, feral dogs and cats) as well as natural predators (dingo and Tasmanian Devil).

Conservation

• IUCN Status: Least Concern

Although abundant in numbers, the red kangaroo is protected by law in Australia and occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Hunting and commercial harvesting is controlled under nationally approved management plants which aim to maintain populations while keeping damage to agriculture to a minimum. Frequent aerial surveys are also carried out to monitor abundance and distribution.

Fun Facts

• Male: Boomer, Jack, Buck
• Female: Flyer, Doe, Jill
• Young: Joey
• Group: Mob

• The kangaroo cannot walk backwards, which is the reason it is on the Australian flag (along with the emu).
• Kangaroos are excellent swimmers.
• They burn less energy the faster they hop.
• The name ‘kangaroo’ comes from the aboriginal Australian term ‘gangurru’ which was first recorded in 1770 by British explorer, Captain James Cook.

References

• Adaptations [Online] Available at: http://haesesa.tripod.com/adaptations.htm [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Fun Facts about Kangaroos [Online] Available at: http://www.livescience.com/27400-kangaroos.html [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Kangaroo Behaviours [Online] Available at: http://rootae.tripod.com/kangaroo_behaviorspage.htm [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroo [Online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_kangaroo [Accessed: 21 January 2014]
• Red Kangaroo [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Red_Kangaroo [Accessed: 29 January 2014]
• Red Kangaroo [Online] Available at: http://www.theanimalspot.com/redkangaroo.htm [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroo [Online] Available at: http://www.alicespringsdesertpark.com.au/kids/nature/mammals/kangaroo.shtml [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroo [Online] Available at: http://zoologicalwildlifefoundation.com/animals/mammals/marsupials/red-kangaroo/ [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroos!! [Online] Available at: http://325735006398485727.weebly.com/ [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroo Diet [Online] Available at: http://animals.pawnation.com/red-kangaroos-diet-1667.html [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Red Kangaroo Macropus rufus [Online] Available at: http://animals.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/mammals/red-kangaroo/ [Accessed: 21 January 2014]
• Red Kangaroo, Macropus rufus [Online] Available at: http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/red_kangaroo/red_kangaroo.html#distribution [Accessed: 29 January 2014]
• Red Kangaroo, Macropus rufus [Online] Available at: http://australianmuseum.net.au/Red-Kangaroo [Accessed: 29 January 2014]
• Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus) [Online] Available at: http://www.arkive.org/red-kangaroo/macropus-rufus/ [Accessed: 4 April 2014]
• Threats [Online] Available at: http://www.kangaroofootprints.com.au/threats.htm [Accessed: 4 April 2014]

African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

(http://www.arkive.org/african-buffalo/syncerus-caffer/image-G28659.html)

• Name: African buffalo
• Latin: Syncerus caffer
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Africa
• Lifespan: 15-25 years
• AKA: Buffalo, cape buffalo, forest buffalo, Savannah buffalo

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia (mammals)
• Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates)
• Family: Bovidae (cloven-hoofed mammals)
• Genus: Syncerus (buffalo)
• Species: Syncerus caffer (African buffalo)

Apperance

• Weight: 300-900kg
• Height: 100-170cm

The African buffalo is massive, heavily built, cattle like animal. It has large and heavy horns that curve downward, then upward and inward. Both sexes have horns, with the males being more gnarled. These horns are so strong and compact that they cannot be penetrated even by a rifle bullet. Both the male and female have a dark brown coat. Sight and hearing are both rather poor but their sense of smell is well developed.

Relatives

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• American bison (Bison bison) -NEAR THREATENED-
• Saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis) -CRITICALLY ENDANGERED-
• Water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) -ENDANGERED-
• Yak (Bos mutus) -VULNERABLE-  

Habitat & Distribution

The African buffalo is found throughout northern and southern savannah. They also live in swamps, floodplains, mopane grasslands and forests. They prefer habitat with dense cover, such as reeds and thickets. Herds of this animal have also been found in open woodland and grasslands.

The African buffalo once ranged widely in sub-Saharan Africa, although their distribution has shrank due to hunting and disease.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/African_Buffalo)

Diet

The diet of the African buffalo is mainly made up of grass. This animal feeds mainly at night because they seem to have a poor ability to regulate body temperature. Without fresh, green feed, buffalo lose condition faster than other savannah ungulates.

While the African buffalo is drinking, tick birds take the opportunity to eat ticks and other parasites from around their face. This is the only time the buffalo will tolerate sharp beaks around their sensitive eyes.

Behaviour

The African buffalo lives in herds of a few hundred, although this number can increase into thousands during the rainy seasons. The females and their offspring tend to make up the majority of the herd as males spend a lot of time living in small bachelor groups. Bulls older than 12 years of age however, tend to live on their own.

Reproduction

African buffalos mate and give birth only during the rainy season. When a cow comes into heat, a bull will closely guard her and keep other bulls at bay, which can be difficult as cows are evasive and can attract many males.

A cow will have her first calf at five years of age and their gestation period lasts for a total of 11.5 months. The calf will remain hidden in vegetation, being nursed by its mother for its first few weeks before joining the main herd. The calves are kept in the centre of the herd for safety.

The maternal bond between and mother and her offspring lasts longer than other bovids, however, the bond will end if the mother has a new calf, and will keep her previous offspring away with horn jabs. The males will leave their mothers at 2 years old to join bachelor groups and the females remain with the herd.

Young African buffalo

(http://www.arkive.org/african-buffalo/syncerus-caffer/image-G28323.html)

Adaptations

• Forest dwelling cape buffalo have backward facing horns to avoid getting tangled in tree branches.
• There is a large tuft of hair on the tip of the tail which serves as a fly swatter and keeps biting insects at bay.
• The African buffalo has a well-developed sense of smell, as it can smell water from miles away.
• This animal has very powerful leg muscles and can sprint at speeds of up to 37 miles per hour.

Threats

In history, the African buffalo numbers dropping dramatically during the 18th century due to a rindepest epidemic. Today, disease still threatens this creature, for example, foot & mouth disease lowers their numbers significantly, particularly in Zimbabwe.

Their numbers also decline during dry spells, as they cannot adapt very well to dry conditions and struggle to find enough food when the grass is short.

Predation has a minor effect on buffalo numbers, but is still a threat to individuals. The African buffalo is hunted and eaten by lions and leopards.

Conservation

• IUCN Status: Least Concern

75% of African buffalo numbers can be found in and around protected areas, such as the Serengeti National Park, the Kilimanjaro National Park and Tanzania. This animal is part of the ‘Big 5’ (a group of animals most sought after by tourists of wildlife safaris) which gives people a great economic incentive to conserve this animal.

The ‘Big 5’ include the African buffalo, the elephant, the rhino, the lion and the leopard.

Fun Facts

• Male: Bull
• Female: Cow
• Young: Calf
• Group: Herd

• There are two subspecies of the African buffalo, which include the cape buffalo and the forest buffalo.
• The African buffalo can live in herds containing thousands of individuals.
• The males can weigh twice as much as the female.

Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)

(http://www.arkive.org/aardvark/orycteropus-afer/image-G34981.html)

• Name: Aardvark
• Latin: Orycteropus afer
• Classification: Mammal
• Origin: Africa
• Lifespan: 15-20 years
• AKA: Antbear, anteater, Cape anteater, earth hog, earth pig

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
• Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia (mammals)
• Order: Tubulidentata (afrotherian mammals)
• Family: Orycteropodidae (aardvark)
• Genus: Orycteropus (aardvark)
• Species: Orycteropus afer (aardvark)

Apperance

• Length: Body – 3-5ft (90-150cm) Tail – 1.2-2ft (45-60cm)
• Height: 2ft (60cm)
• Weight: 100-170lbs (45-77kg)

The aardvark has a bulky body and a humped back. The head is long and narrow and ends in a pig-like snout. The ears are very long and can move independently of each other. The mouth contains 20 teeth which are located at the back of the jaw, they are unusual in that they do not stop growing and they have no roots or enamel. Its mouth also has a 1.5ft (45cm) long tongue which is thin and sticky.

The legs of the aardvark are short and powerful and end with webbed feet. The front feet have four toes and the back have five. The body has thick, pink-grey skin that protects the animal from insect bites and is sparsely covered with bristly hairs which are yellowish or brownish grey in colour.

Relatives

The aardvark is the only member in its taxonomic family.

Habitat & Distribution

Aardvarks can be found in all regions of Africa including dry savannahs and rainforests. Their habitat requirements include sufficient termites for food, access to water and sandy or clay soil. If the soil is too hard, they will move to areas where digging is easier.

Aardvarks are widely distributed in Africa, south of the Saharah. They range from Senegal, east to Ethiopia and south to South Africa. They are absent from the Namib Desert in south-western Africa.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Aardvark)

Diet

The aardvarks diet is primarily made up of ants, termites and other insects which it digs from the ground using its powerful forepaws and eat with its sticky, foot-long tongue. While foraging at night, the aardvark will press its nose to the ground and follow a zigzag motion to pick up scents of termite mounds and can cover an average of 6 miles in this manner. The same route will be repeated once a week. To obtain water, the aardvark will dig up and eat wild cucumber plants.

Behaviour

Aardvarks and solitary creatures and have never been found in large numbers. They are nocturnal and rely on their sense of smell to locate termites. In one night, they can cover 1.3-3 miles (2-5 kilometres) at a rate of 1,640 feet (500 meters) per hour.

Aardvarks are well known for their digging abilities and can burrow 3.3ft (1m) deep faster than a group of six adults with shovels. When digging, they will push dirt backwards with their claws and the tail will sweep it away. If threatened and cannot escape, the aardvark will lie on its back and fight with all four feet.

Reproduction

The mating season of the aardvark varies according to region. In some areas, these animals will mate in April to May and their offspring will be born in October to November, in other areas they females will give birth in May or June.

The gestation period of the aardvark is seven months and will give birth to one offspring at a time. The young are pink and hairless at birth and weigh approximately 4 pound (2 kilograms). The young will remain in the mother burrow for two weeks, after which it will follow her on the nightly search for food. The young aardvarks will live on their mother’s milk until around three months of age, at which they will be weaned onto solids.

The young leave the mothers burrow after six months but will build their own burrows nearby. The males will leave the mothers completely during the next mating season and the females will remain with their mother until her next young is born.

Adaptations

• The aardvark has a long, snake-like tongue covered in sticky mucus. This is used to scoop up ants and other insects from their underground nests. A single aardvark can eat up to 50,000 insects in a single night using its tongue.
• The aardvark has thick, powerful claws on its forelegs which are used for destroying ant and termite nests and for digging new burrows.
• The aardvark has more olfactory lobes than any other mammal giving it advanced hearing and smell. These senses are used to detect insects in their underground homes and potential predators.
• Aardvarks are nocturnal and solitary. This makes it difficult for predators to catch them as many only hunt during the day.

Threats

Aardvark numbers have been reduced in some areas throughout its range due to human activity and the destruction of its habitat. It is commonly hunted for its meant and other products. The skin, claws and teeth are used to make bracelets and charm, while the hairs are sometimes reduced to a powder and become a potent poison when added to beer.

The habitat of the aardvark is often lost to some forms of agriculture, for example, intensive crop farming. However, cattle farming is beneficial as it improves the habitat for termites. They are also persecuted as their burrows can cause damage to farming equipment, roads, dam walls and fences.

Their natural predators include lions, leopards, hyenas and pythons.

Conservation

• IUCN Status: Least Concern

The aardvark population is currently in large numbers throughout its range and can be found in a number of large and well-managed protected areas. Therefore, there are is no need for any major conservation methods for this species.

Fun Facts

• Male: Boar
• Female: Sow
• Young: Cub
• Group: Pack, Grouping

• Aardvark means ‘Earth Pig’ in Afrikanns.
• An aardvarks claws are as strong as a pick axe.
• When disturbed, an aardvark will squeal like a pig.
• Aardvarks are the only animal in their order.

References

• 13 Amazing Anomalies about the Aardvark [Online] Available at: http://13-fun-facts.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/13-amazing-anomalies-about-aardvark.html[Accessed: 2 September 2013]
• Aardvark [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Aardvark#intro [Accessed: 11 June 2013]
• Aardvark [Online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark [Accessed: 11 June 2013]
• Aardvark [Online] Available at: http://www.bronxzoo.com/animals-and-exhibits/animals/mammals/aardvark.aspx [Accessed: 24 August 2013]
• Aardvark [Online] Available at: http://designeranimals.wikispaces.com/Aardvark [Accessed: 28 August 2013]
• Aardvark: Earth Pig, Ant Bear [Online] Available at: http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/animals1/aardvark/aardvark.html [Accessed: 12 August 2013]
• Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) [Online] Available at: http://www.arkive.org/aardvark/orycteropus-afer/ [Accessed: 2 September 2013]
• Aardvark: Tubulidentata – Behaviour and Reproduction [Online] Available at: http://animals.jrank.org/pages/3204/Aardvark-Tubulidentata-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html [Accessed: 24 August 2013]
• Orycteropus afer [Online] Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41504/0 [Accessed: 2 September 2013]